Water World as Another Home for the English Nation Reflected in the English Folklore
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Plan
Introduction.
The history of Britain & # 8217 ; s dealingss with its & # 8220 ; waterworld & # 8221 ; .Why did it animate the outgrowth of the rich English folklore?
The H2O universe in the English folklore: narratives, narratives frights, biass, verse forms connected with seas, rivers, lakes and their dwellers.
The English state & # 8217 ; s effort at seeking to continue its cherished & # 8220 ; waterworld & # 8221 ; both as the natural resource and the cultural heritage.
Decision.
The British are a most funny state in many facets. When a tourer from whatever continent comes to see Britain the first decision he arrives at is how eccentric the people populating there are. The chief ground to their singularity will surely lie on the surface: Great Britain is an island populated by the state that had to turn up and travel all the long manner of its history entirely being separated from the remainder of the universe by great sums of H2O. This really features turned them into non merely a funny state, but besides an interesting and particular one, whose history and civilization are one of the richest in the universe. And the H2O environing the island played non a minor portion in its forming. So the British people respect and cherish their & # 8220 ; watery & # 8221 ; neighbors who from the earliest phases of their history up to now gave them nutrient, drink, work, power, regard of other states, wealth and after all amusement. It inspired a immense figure of narratives, narratives, verse forms, superstitious notions and prejudicies and it has ever been worshipped by the people.
The surveies of the British civilization and hence apprehension of the national character of the English can non stand apart from the research of its of import merchandise & # 8211 ; folklore. By civilization we mean the consequence of the societal activity of people. Every new coevals historically brings its piece into the whole procedure of the development of civilization of this or that state ; so civilization collects the values expressed through different agencies: literature, architecture, music, sculpture, traditions, culinary art, etc. Cultural development of the state is indispensable for the development of every individual belonging to it, because his apprehension and percepting of the universe is formed harmonizing to the society he grows up in and is influenced by the norms and values of this society.
Humanistic disciplines in general are ever meant to convey beauty into the life of people and educate them through it, do them better, kinder and wiser. National folklore is no exclusion in this sense. Even if it really frequently does non hold a human being as the cardinal figure it still conveying frontward ethical inquiries, surveies human psyche, its moral qualities. Accepting this facet presupposes that we realize the educational side of the folkloric characters and understand what their Godheads wanted to state us, or warn about, or what sort of an ideal they meant to organize up. However, each folkloric hero or character is a mixture of a figure of different qualities and its nature is non ever clear and easy to interpreter. Therefore the purpose and the significance of a character should be searched for in merely one side of its complicated semantics.
So the purpose of this work is to do a research in the portion of a rich field of the British folklore refering British H2O universe through the agencies of vocals, verse forms, narratives, fables, frights, superstitious notions, narratives. With the aid of this stuff we shall analyze the alterations and development of the English character, linguistic communication, history and civilization.
Chapter 1
The field of the state & # 8217 ; s economic system connected with H2O was ever a great concern for those who ruled it for they of course attached much importance to it. From the times when the English society was being born and merely get downing to take form male monarchs already would involvement themselves in the conditions of trading across the sea. In the 11th century Cnut on a pilgrim’s journey to Rome took the chance of obtaining from the Emperor and other swayers he met at that place greater security and decrease of talls for his topics, bargainers and others, going in their lands. Already in the 8th century an English merchandiser called Botta was settled at Marceilles, possibly as an agent for roll uping goods to be sold in England. The Viking rades of the late eighth and 9th centuries disrupted trade on the Continent, but Englishmen may good hold taken portion in the Baltic trade opened up by this clip. At least, there is no ground to deny English nationality to a certain Wulfstan who described to King Alfred a journey taken to the Frisches Haff ; he has an English name.
On the other manus, we hear of foreign bargainers in England from early times. Bede speaks of London as the & # 8220 ; marketplace of many states, fall backing to it by sea and land & # 8221 ; , and mentions the purchase of a confined by a Frisian merchandiser in London. But the strongest grounds for the sum of sea traffic in Frisian custodies is the premise of an Anglo-Saxon poet that a mariner is likely to hold a Frisian married woman:
Dear is the welcome invitee to the Frisian adult female when the ship comes to set down. His ship is come and her hubby, her ain staff of life & # 8211 ; victor, is at place, and she invites him in, rinse his stained array and gives him new apparels, grants him on land what his love demands.
Work force from other lands came besides. At the terminal of the 10th century a papers covering with trade in London speaks of work forces from Rouen, Flanders, Ponthieu, Normandy, France ; from about the same day of the month comes a description of York as the resort of merchandisers from all quarters, particularly Danes.
The merchandisers and mariners plied an honoured trade. The poets speak with grasp of the mariner & # 8220 ; who can boldly drive the ship across the salt sea & # 8221 ; or & # 8220 ; can maneuver the root on the dark moving ridge, knows the currents, ( being ) the pilot of the company over the broad ocean & # 8221 ; , and it was at least a current sentiment in the early 11th century that the merchandiser who had crossed the sea three times at his ain cost should be entitled to a thane & # 8217 ; s rank. The merchandiser in Aelfric & # 8217 ; s & # 8220 ; Colloquy & # 8221 ; stresses the dangers of his batch:
I go on board my ship with my cargo and row over the parts of the sea, and sell my goods and purchase cherished things which are non produced in this land, and I bring it hither to you with great danger over the sea, and sometimes I suffer shipwreck with the loss of all my goods, hardly get awaying with my life.
As we see people working in the sea or over the seas gained much regard in the society and were loved by others. But so much for the economical facet. The H2O, as we already mentioned earlier, was one of the greatest attractive forces as a beginning of amusement.
Fishing, like hunting, was extremely popular in England, but these were pleasances reserved for the aristocracy. In the 12th century, when the male monarchs had usually been so strong, they had claimed such oppressive fishing & # 8211 ; rights that all the categories had united in protest. One of the demands of the Rebels in 1381 was that runing and fishing should be common to all ; non merely was this refused, but in 1390 Parliament enacted a punishment for one twelvemonth & # 8217 ; s imprisonment for everyone who should assume to maintain runing & # 8211 ; Canis familiariss or utilize Mustela nigripess or traps to catch cervid, coneies, or any other game. Fishing and hunting, said the legislative act, was the athletics for gentlefolk.
So this is a scetch or an lineation of grounds explicating why our ascendants valued so much the rivers, lakes, seas of their land & # 8211 ; and it is deserving adverting that their land abounds in all that & # 8211 ; and why they respected the work of crewmans, merchandisers or travelers. All this is of import for the apprehension of how it was going an inseparable portion of their civilization and how it is reflected in their civilization.
Chapter 2
What is folklore? Funk and Wagnall & # 8217 ; s & # 8220 ; Standard Dictionary of Folklore, Mythology and Legend & # 8221 ; ( 1972 ) offers a reeling 22 definitions, running to half a twelve pages. In recent old ages definitions have tended to be all & # 8211 ; encompassing in their simpleness: folklore is made up of & # 8220 ; the traditional narratives, imposts and wonts of a peculiar community or state & # 8221 ; says the & # 8220 ; Collins Cobuild Dictionary & # 8221 ; of 1987.
More specific definitions besides abound ; possibly, folklore should be identified as the community & # 8217 ; s committedness to keeping narratives, imposts and wonts strictly for their ain interest. ( A perfect illustration of this would be the celebrated Equus caballus race at Siena in Italy: the P a cubic decimeter I o attracts many 1000s of tourers, yet if non a individual foreigner attend, the people of the community would still back up the event twelvemonth after twelvemonth ) .
But what about those events or beliefs which have been late initiated or which are sustained for grounds of commercial addition or touristry? Many imposts are non every bit ancient as their participants may claim but it would be foolish to disregard them as irrelevant. Some seemingly ancient imposts are, in fact, comparatively modern, but does this mean they can non be termed as folklore? The dramatic fire festival at Allendale, for case, feels absolutely reliable despite the fact that there is no record of the event prior to 1853. There are many other instances of new events or narratives which have quickly assumed organic growing and hence merit the position of being recognised as folklore.
Any work covering the inquiry of folklore must be selective, but here we shall try to research and observe the assortment and energy of Britain & # 8217 ; s folklore refering & # 8220 ; waterworld & # 8221 ; traditions, beliefs and superstitious notions. A broad geographical country is covered: England, Scotland and Wales with some mention to Ireland and other districts.
Entire books & # 8211 ; so, whole libraries of books & # 8211 ; have been written on every facet of folklore: on epitaphs and conditions traditional knowledge, common people medical specialty and calendar imposts, traditional play and athleticss and interests, superstitious notions, shades and witchery, carnivals, sea monsters and many others. While seeking to jam much into small work I have avoided generalization. Precise inside informations such as names, day of the months and vicinities are given wherever possible and there are some mentions to characteristics that still can be seen – a mountain, a span, a standing rock or a carving in a church.
Authoritative folklore belongs within the state to the basic unit of the parish. Most parishes could bring forth at least a brochure and in some instances a significant volume on their ain folklore, yesteryear and nowadays. It would be a error, nevertheless, to believe that rural imposts, dance and narrative were the whole image, because there is a rich image of urban and industrial folklore as good & # 8211 ; from the office miss & # 8217 ; s prewedding ceremonials to urban narratives of apparition hitchhickers and stolen cadavers.
In this age of atomization, velocity and emphasis, people frequently seem to thirst for something in which they can take an active portion. There is a demand to rediscover something which is more lasting and portion of a go oning tradition. By tapping into our heritage of vocal and narrative, ritual and jubilation, our lives are given form and significance.
In some instances all we have to make is fall in in with an activity which is already go oning ; in others it will possibly intend resuscitating a dance or a traditional drama. But nevertheless we choose to take part, every bit long as we continue to utilize, adapt and develop the elements of our folklore heritage it will last.
So this work may be regarded as an effort to promote us all to seek out the narratives and imposts of state, county, town, small town, to understand and bask them and to go through them on.
The watery universe
Not a individual town or small town in England is situated more than a 100 stat mis from the sea, except for a few topographic points in the Midlands, and most of those in Wales and Scotland are close still. The coastline lies for 1000s of stat mis, with a host of off-shore islands runing from Scilly to Shetland and Wight to Lewis. It is barely surprising so that our long and eventful nautical history is complemented by a rich heritage of maritime narratives and superstitious notions, beliefs and imposts, many of which continue to impact our day-to-day lives & # 8211 ; even oil rigs, really much a twentieth & # 8211 ; century phenomenon, have narratives of their ain. Inland H2O, excessively, are the topics of narratives which echoes the folklore of the seashores and seas.
Beneath the moving ridges
Many narratives are told of submersed lands, and of church bells pealing ominously from beneath the moving ridges. Between Land & # 8217 ; s End and the Scilly Islands lies a group of stones called The Seven Stones, known to fishermen as & # 8220 ; The City & # 8221 ; and near to which the land of Lyoness is believed to lie, lost under the sea. There is a rime which proclaims:
Between Land & # 8217 ; s End and Scilly Rocks
Sunk lies a town that ocean mocks.
Lyoness was said to hold had 140 churches. These and most of its people were reputed to hold been engulfed during the great storrn of 11 November 1099. One adult male called Trevilian foresaw the flood, and moved his household and stock inland & # 8211 ; he was doing a last journey when the Waterss rose, but managed to outrun the progressing moving ridges thanks to the fleetness of his Equus caballus. Since so the weaponries of the thankful Trevilian have carried the similitude of a Equus caballus publishing from the sea. A 2nd adult male who avoided the calamity erected a chapel in thanksgiving which stood for centuries near Sennen Cove.
Another country lost under H2O is Cantre & # 8217 ; R Gwaelod, which lies in Cardigan Bay someplace between the river Teifi and Bardsey Island. Sixteen towns and most of their dwellers were seemingly overwhelmed by the sea when the penstock Gatess in the protective butch were left unfastened. There are two versions of the narrative as to who was responsible: in one it is a bibulous watcher called Seithenin ; in another, Seithenin was a male monarch who preferred to pass his gross in dissipation instead than in paying for the care of the coastal defense mechanisms.
A moral of one sort or another will frequently be the footing of narratives about inland colonies lost beneath H2O. For illustration Bomere Lake in Shropshire & # 8211 ; now visited as a beauty topographic point was created one Easter Eve when the town which stood there was submerged as a penalty for returning to pagan religion. One Roman soldier was spared because he had attempted to convey the people backto Christianity, but he so lost his life while seeking to salvage the adult female he loved. It is said that his shade can sometimes be seen rowing across the lake at Easter, and that the town, s bells can be heard pealing. There is another version of the same narrative in the same topographic point, but set in Saxon times: the people turn to Thor and Woden at a clip when the priest is warning that the barrier which holds back the metre needs beef uping. He is ignored, but as the townspeople are roistering at Yuletide the H2O explosions in and destruct them.
There is a prophylactic narrative told of Semerwater, another lake with a lost small town in its deepness. Semerwater lies in north Yorkshire non far from Askrigg, which is possibly better known as the Centre of & # 8220 ; Herriot state & # 8221 ; , from the veterinary narratives of James Herriot. The narrative goes that a traveler & # 8211 ; diversely given as an angel, St Paul, Joseph of Arimathea, a enchantress, and Christ in the pretense of a hapless old adult male & # 8211 ; visited house after house seeking nutrient and drink, but at each one was turned off, until he reached a Quaker & # 8217 ; s place, merely beyond the small town: htis was the lone edifice spared in the avenging inundation that followed.
One lost land off the Kent seashore can be partly seen at high tide: originally, the Goodwin Sands were in fact an island, the island of Lomea which harmonizing to one version disappeared under the moving ridges in the 11th century when financess for its sea defense mechanisms were diverted to pay for the edifice of a church tower at Tenterden. The incrimination for that is laid at the door of a n archimandrite of St Augustine & # 8217 ; s at Canterbury who was both proprietor of Lomea and curate of Tenterden. However, skeptics say that Tenterden had no tower before the 16th century, nor can archaeologists happen any hint of habitation or cultivation of the littorals. Even so, the narratives continue to be told ; one of these incriminations Earl Godwin, male parent of King Harold, for the loss of the island. He earl promised to construct a spire at Tenterden in return for safe bringing from a conflict, but holding survived the conflict, he forgot the vow and in requital Lomea, which he owned, was flooded during a great storm. The Sands still bear his name.
Yet worse was to follow, for tonss of ships and the lives of some 50 000 sea farers have been lost on the Goodwins, and ill-fortune seems to chase the country. For illustration, in 1748 the & # 8220 ; Lady Lovibond & # 8221 ; was deliberatly steered to her devastation on the Littorals by the mate of the vas, John Rivers. Rivers was crazily jealeous because his intended bride, Anetta, had foresaken him to get married his captain, Simon Reed. The full nuptials party perished with the ship in the thick of the jubilations, but the singular thing is that the scene made a phantom reappearance one time every 50 old ages & # 8211 ; until 1948, when the & # 8220 ; Lady Lovibond & # 8221 ; at last failed to re-enact the play.
Another 50 – twelvemonth reappearance concerns the Nothumberland ; she was lost on the Goodwind littorals in 1703 in a storm, along with 12 other work forces & # 8211 ; of – war, but in 1753 seen once more by the crew of an East Indiaman & # 8211 ; crewmans were jumping in to the H2O from the afflicted vas though their cries and shrieks could non be heard.
The Nothumberland was under the bid of Sir Cloudesley Shovel, to whom is attached a farther narrative. Three old ages subsequently, the admiral & # 8217 ; s flagship, the Association, was wrecked on the Gilstone Rock near the Scilly Isles. The fleet was homeward edge after a exultant run against the Gallic and some maintain that the crews were intoxicated. But the narrative which Scillonians believe to this twenty-four hours is that a crewman aboard the flagship warned that the fleet was perilously near the islands, and that for this he was hanged at the yardarm for unsubordination, on the admiral & # 8217 ; s orders. The adult male was granted a last petition to read from the Bible, and turned to the 109 Psalm: & # 8220 ; Let his yearss be few and another take his topographic point. Let his kids be fatherless and his married woman a widow & # 8221 ; . As he read the ship began to strike the stones.
The admiral was a really stalwart adult male and his perkiness was sufficient to transport him ashore alive, though really weak. However, official hunts found him dead, stripped off his vesture and valuables, including a all right emerald ring. The organic structure was taken to Westminster Abbey for burial, and his widow appealed in vain for the return of the ring. Many old ages subsequently a St Mary & # 8217 ; s islander confessed on the deathbed that she had found Sir Cloudesley and had & # 8220 ; squeezed the life out of him & # 8221 ; before taking his belongongs. The chromaticity and call had forced her to abandon the thought of selling the emerald, but she had felt unable to decease in peace before uncovering her offense.
A commemorating rock marks the topographic point where the admiral & # 8217 ; s organic structure was temporarily buried in the shake of Porth Hellick, on St Mary & # 8217 ; s Island. No grass grows over the grave.
The wreck of the ramilies
Many 100s of shipwrecks have their ain vocals and narratives. Although the Ramilies, for illustration, was wrecked good over 200 old ages ago, tradition perpetuates the event every bit clearly as if it had happened merely yesterday. In February 1760 the majestic, 90 & # 8211 ; gun, ternary decked ship was outward bound from Plymouth to Quiberon Bay when hurricane & # 8211 ; force air currents blew up in the Channel and forced the captain to turn back and run for shelter. Sailing East, the maestro thought he had passed Looe Island, and had merely to round Rame Head to make the safety of Plymouth Sound. In fact the ship was a bay further on and the land sighted was Burgh Island, in Bigbury Bay. The Promontory was Bolt Tail with its four 100 pes drops, and beyond ballad no safe seaport at all, but several stat mis of hasty stones. Equally shortly as the seafaring maestro realised his error the ship was hove to, but the air current was so violent that the masts instantly snapped and went overboard. The two anchores that were dropped held fast, but their overseas telegrams fouled each other, and after hours of ferocious clash, they parted and the ship was driven to destruction on the stones.
Of more than seven hundred work forces on board merely approximately two twelve reached safety. Led by Midshipman John Harrold, they scrambled up the drops, by pure fortune taking the one topographic point where this was possible. Following twenty-four hours a certain William Locker travelled to the scene to seek to happen the organic structure of his friend, one of the officers. Locker himself would hold been aboard the & # 8220 ; Ramillies & # 8221 ; but his lieutenant & # 8217 ; s committee had come from the admiralty excessively tardily, geting merely a few hours after she had sailed. He found the shores of Bigbury Bay strewn with 100s of cadavers, their vesture torn off by the sea & # 8217 ; s buffeting, their characteristics unrecognizable. The small town nearest to the scene of the wreck was Inner Hope, and some there still maintain that a Bigbury adult male aboard the & # 8220 ; Ramillies & # 8221 ; pleaded with the captain to change class ; but he was clapped in chainss, and went down with the ship. They say that merely one officer survived because others were prevented from go forthing the afflicted vas.
Most of the organic structures were washed ashore at Thurlestone, a few stat mis to the West. There used to be a depression in the small town green which marked the topographic point where many of the mariners had been buried in a mass grave ; this has now been asphalted to do a carpark. Then in the mid & # 8211 ; 1960s a kid excavation in a sand dune found a bone. He showed it to a adult male on the beach who happened to be a physician and identified it as homo. Further delving revealed the skeletons of 10 work forces, little in stature and buried in five & # 8211 ; pes intervals — possibly these had been washed up after the mass entombment. No bit of vesture or equipment was found, and eventually the castanetss were thrown into a lorry and consigned to a rubbish tip. Even though two centuries have elapsed since their deceases, one feels that the work forces of the & # 8220 ; Ramillies & # 8221 ; deserved better. The ship still lies six fthms down in the cove which which has borne her name since 1760, and Wise & # 8217 ; s Spring on the drop is called after one of the mariners who scrambled ashore with the bantam set of subsisters.
Omens of catastrophe
Great strivings are taken when first establishing a vas so as to guarantee good luck, and one of the most of import omens is the ritual bottle of bubbly which must interrupt first clip ( the liquid may be a replacement for the blood of a forfeit ) . It is interesting that the assorted ships to bear the name & # 8220 ; Ark Royal & # 8221 ; have ever been lucky ; for illustration when the World War 11 vas sunk there was minimum loss of life. The original ship dated from Elizabethan times and had a rood placed beneath the mainmast by the captain & # 8217 ; s kept woman ; this seemingly secured the good luck for all her replacements. On the other manus there are vass which seem perpetually luckless, some even hexed and quite incapable of get awaying bad luck.
Brunel & # 8217 ; s all right ship the & # 8220 ; Great Eastern & # 8221 ; was launched in 1858 after several ominously unsuccessful efforts. She ruined the adult male in whose pace she was built, and caused a dislocation in Brunel & # 8217 ; s wellness & # 8211 ; he died even before her inaugural ocean trip. And despite her huge proficient advantages, she was ne’er successful as the rider – transporting vas.
In 1895 she was in port in Holyhead. When the & # 8220 ; Royal Charter & # 8221 ; sailed by, homeward bound from Australia, the riders expressed a desire to see her and their captain was merely excessively pleased to compel. However, the ship strayed off class and a wild storm blew up. The ship was wrecked, with great loss of life. Some of the problem was attributed to the narrative of a rivetter and his male child who were said to hold been by chance sealed to the celebrated dual hull. Unexplained knockings were heard at assorted times but although hunts were made, nil was found. When the vas was broken up at New Ferry, Cheshire, in 1888 it was rumoured that two sceletons were discovered, their bony fingers still clenched round the worn & # 8211 ; down cocks which had beaten in vain for deliverance.
The & # 8220 ; Victoria & # 8221 ; was commissioned on Good Friday, the thirteenth of the month & # 8211 ; and if this were non ill-luck plenty, the fact that her name ended in & # 8216 ; a & # 8217 ; was considered another bad mark. In 1893 she sank with heavy losingss after a hit during the tactics in the Mediterranean off Beirut, and interestingly, assorted things happened which indicated catastrophe: two hours earlier a fakeer had really predicted catastrophe, and at the clip of the hit crowds had gathered at the dockyards Gatess in Malta, drawn by an natural apprehensiveness of impending day of reckoning. At the same clip during tiffin at a Weymouth gunman works the root of a wine glass had all of a sudden cracked with a loud rejoinder ; and in London & # 8217 ; s Eaton Square the ship & # 8217 ; s Admiral Tryon was seen coming down the steps at his place. He was in fact aboard the & # 8220 ; Victoria & # 8221 ; , where he survived the impact but made no attempt to salvage himself. As he sank beneath the moving ridges he is said to hold lamented: & # 8220 ; It was all my mistake & # 8221 ; & # 8211 ; and so it was, for he had given the incorrect order which led to the hit.
Coevalss after her loss the & # 8220 ; Titanic & # 8221 ; is still a proverb for hubris. In 1912 the & # 8220 ; unsinkable ship & # 8221 ; struck an iceberg on her inaugural ocean trip and went down with 1 500 riders and crew. Again, a assortment if portents anticipated the catastrophe: a steward & # 8217 ; s badge came to pieces as his married woman stitched it to his cap, and a image fell from the wall in a Stoker & # 8217 ; s place ; so aboard the ship a signal halyard parted as it was used to admit the & # 8216 ; bon ocean trip & # 8217 ; signal from the Head of Old Kinsale beacon & # 8211 ; and the twenty-four hours before the hit rats were seen scampering aft, off from the point of impact. After the catastrophe Captain Smith, who went down with the ship, is rumoured to hold been seen ashore.
One cause of the & # 8220 ; Titanic & # 8221 ; catastrophe is said to hold been an luckless Egyptian ma instance. This is the palpebra of an interior casket with the representation of the caput and upper organic structure of an unknown lady of about 1000 bc. Ill-fortune surely seemed to go with the palpebra & # 8211 ; foremost of all the adult male who bought it from the finder had an arm shattered by an inadvertent gun shooting. He sold, but the buyer was shortly afterwards the receiver of the bad intelligence, larning that he was belly-up and that he had a fatal disease. The new proprietor, an English lady, placed the casket palpebra in her drawing & # 8211 ; room: following forenoon she found everything at that place smashed. She moved it upstairs and the same thing happened, so she besides sold it. When this buyer had the palpebra photographed, a leering, devilish face was seen in the print. And when it was finally presented to the British Museum, members of staff began to contract cryptic complaints & # 8211 ; one even died. It was sold yet once more to an American, who arranged to take it home with him on the & # 8220 ; Titanic & # 8221 ; . After the calamity he managed to corrupt the crewmans to let him to take it into a lifeboat, and it did make America. Later he sold it to a Canadian, who in 1941 decided to transport it back to England ; the vas taking it, & # 8220 ; Empress of Ireland & # 8221 ; , sank in the river St Lawrence. So runs the narrative, but in world the casket palpebra did non go forth the British Museum after being presented in 1889.
The former premier min
ister, Edward Heath, in his book “Sailing” ( 1975 ) revealed that he excessively had experienced the warnings of sick portents. At the launch of the “Morning Cloud 1” the bottle twice refused to interrupt, and at the same ceremonial for the “Morning Cloud 111” the married woman of a crew member fell and suffered terrible concussion. This yacht was subsequently wrecked off the South seashore with the loss of two lives, and in the really same gale the “Morning Cloud 1” was blown from the moorages on the island of Jersey, and besides wrecked. Meanwhile, the Morning Cloud 11” had been launched without incident and was taking a problem free life with the Australian to whom she had been sold.
Equally late as December 1987 a unusual instance came to visible radiation as a consequence of a Department of Health and Social Security question into why members of a Bridlington trawler crew were passing so much clip unemployed. In account, Derek Gates, skipper of the & # 8220 ; Pickering & # 8221 ; , said that seting to sea had become impossible: on board visible radiations would waver on and off ; cabins stayed stop deading cold even when the warming was on upper limit ; a coastguard confirmed that the ship & # 8217 ; s maneuvering repeatedly turned her in fickle circles and in add-on, the radio detection and ranging kept neglecting and the engine broke down on a regular basis. One of the sailors reported seeing a spectral, cloth-capped figure rolling the deck, and a former skipper, Michael Laws, told how he repeatedly sensed person in the bunk above his, though it was ever empty. He added: & # 8220 ; My three months on the Pickering & # 8221 ; were the worst in 17 old ages at sea. I didn & # 8217 ; t gain a penny because things were ever traveling incorrect & # 8221 ; .
The DHSS decided that the work forces & # 8217 ; s frights were a echt ground for claiming unemployment benefit, and the vicar of Bridlington, the Rev. Tom Wilis, was called in to carry on a ceremonial of dispossession. He checked the ship & # 8217 ; s history, and concluded that the perturbations might be connected with the shade of a roustabout who had been washed overboard when the trawler, so registered as the & # 8220 ; Family Crest & # 8221 ; , was angling off Ireland. He sprinkled H2O from root to stern, led supplications, and called on the spirit of the dead to go. His intercession proved effectual because the jobs ceased, and moreover the crew began to gain fillips for good gimmicks.
Sailors & # 8217 ; fortune
Sailors used to be really superstitious & # 8211 ; possibly they still are & # 8211 ; and greatly concerned to avoid ill-luck, both ashore and afloat. Wifes must retrieve that & # 8220 ; Wash upon sailing twenty-four hours, and you will rinse your adult male off & # 8221 ; , and must besides be careful to nail any eggshells before they dispose of them, to forestall their being used by evil liquors as trade in which to set to sea and do storms.
Luck was brought by:
tattoos
a gilded ear-ring worn in the left ear
a piece of coal carried
a coin thrown over the ship & # 8217 ; s bow when go forthing port
a plume from a Wren killed on St. Stephen & # 8217 ; s Day
a greater omentum
a hot cross roll or a piece of staff of life baked on a Good Friday
The last three all preserved from submerging. David Copperfield & # 8217 ; s greater omentum was advertised for sale in the newspapers & # 8220 ; for the low monetary value of 15 guineas & # 8221 ; , and the adult female from the port of Lymington in Hampshire offered one in & # 8220 ; The Daily Express & # 8221 ; every bit late as 23 August 1904. One Grimsby adult male born with the greater omentum has kept it to this twenty-four hours. When he joined the Royal Navy during World War 11 his female parent insisted that he take the greater omentum with him. Various other crewmans offered him up to L20 & # 8211 ; a big amount for those yearss & # 8211 ; if he would portion with it, but he declined.
For over two hundred old ages now a roll has been added every Good Friday to a aggregation preserved at the Widow & # 8217 ; s Son Tavern, Bromley & # 8211 ; by & # 8211 ; Bow, London. The name and the usage derive from an 18th & # 8211 ; century widow who hoped that her losing crewman boy would finally come place safely if she continued to salvage a roll every Easter. Some mariners had their ain version of this, and would touch their sweetie & # 8217 ; s roll ( pudenda ) for fortune before seafaring.
Other things had to be avoided because they brought ill-luck.
For illustration:
– meeting a hog, a priest or a adult female on the manner to one & # 8217 ; s ship
holding a priest or a adult female aboard
stating the words: hog, priest, coney, fox, weasel, hare
dropping a pail overboard
go forthing a hatch screen upside down
go forthing a broom, a swab or a squeegee with the caput upwards
ptyalizing in the sea
whistling
passing anything down a companionway
sailing on a Friday
happening a drowned organic structure in the spiller ( in the instance of Yorkshire fisherman )
Although many of these beliefs are vague in beginning, others can be explained.
For illustration, the hog had the Satan & # 8217 ; s grade on his pess & # 8211 ; cloven hoofs & # 8211 ; and was a bringer of storms ; moreover the drowning of the Gadarene swine was a unsafe case in point. Then the priest was associated with funerals, and so taking him on board was possibly excessively blazing a challenge to the malign powers & # 8211 ; if he were to be designated in conversation he was ever & # 8220 ; The gentleman in black & # 8221 ; . The hog was curly tail, or in Scotland & # 8220 ; cauld Fe beastie & # 8221 ; since if it were unwittingly mentioned the talker and listeners had to touch cold Fe to avoid evil effects ; if no cold Fe were available, the he-man to one & # 8217 ; s boots would make. The other four animate beings were forbidden because they were thought to be the forms assumed by enchantresss who were ill-famed for citing storms.
Possibly adult females were besides shunned because they were considered possible enchantresss, although a good manner to do a storm abate was for a adult female to expose her bare organic structure to the elements. Bare – breasted figure & # 8211 ; caputs were designed to accomplish the same consequence. Nevertheless, during HMS & # 8220 ; Durban & # 8221 ; & # 8217 ; s South American circuit in the 1930s the captain allowed his married woman to take transition on the ship. Before the circuit was midway through there were two inadvertent deceases on board, besides a series of bad lucks, and experiencing amongst the crew began to run high. At one port of call a group of work forces returning to the ship on a autonomy boat were freely discoursing the tally of bad fortune, imputing it to & # 8220 ; holding that bloody adult female on board & # 8221 ; . They did non recognize that the captain was separated from them by merely a thin bulkhead and had overheard the whole conversation. But alternatively of taking disciplinary action, he put his married woman ashore the following twenty-four hours ; she travelled by land to other ports, and the ship & # 8217 ; s fortune instantly changed for the better.
Fridays were anathema & # 8211 ; & # 8220 ; Friday canvas, Friday fail & # 8221 ; was the stating & # 8211 ; since the temtation of Adam, the ostracism from the Garden of Eden, and the crucifixion of Christ had all taken topographic point on a Friday. One old narrative, likely apocryphal, Tells of a royal navy ship called HMS & # 8220 ; Friday & # 8221 ; which was launched, foremost sailed and so lost on a Friday ; moreover her captain was besides called Friday. Curiously plenty, a ship of this name does look in the admiralty records in 1919, but the narrative was in circulation some fifty old ages before. This fright of Friday dies difficult. A certain Paul Sibellas, mariner, was aboard the & # 8220 ; Port Invercargill & # 8221 ; in the 1960s when on one juncture she was ready to sail for place from New Zealand at 10pm on Friday the thirteenth. The skipper, nevertheless, delayed his going until midnight had passed and Saturday the fourteenth had arrived.
Whistling is sooner avoided because it can raise up a air current, which might be acceptable aboard a becalmed seafaring ship, but non otherwise. Another manner of acquiring a air current was to lodge a knife in the mast with its grip pointing in the way from which a blow was required & # 8211 ; this was done on the & # 8220 ; Dreadnaught & # 8221 ; in 1869, in jury rig after being dismasted off Cape Horn.
In 1588 Francis Drake is said to hold met the Satan and assorted aces to whistle up storms to interrupt the Spanish Armada. The topographic point near Plymouth were they gathered is now called Devil & # 8217 ; s Point. He is besides said to hold whittled a stick, of which the pieces became fireships as they fell into the sea ; and his house at Buckland Abbey was seemingly built with unexplainable velocity, thanks to the Satan & # 8217 ; s assist. Drake & # 8217 ; s membranophone is preserved in the house and is believed to crush of its ain agreement when the state faces danger.
Inhabitants of the deep
With the mirror and comb, her ling hair, bare chests and fish tail, the mermaid is immediately recognizable, but nowadays merely as an amusive convention. However, she one time inspired existent fright every bit good as captivation and crewmans steadfastly believed she gave warning of storm of catastrophe.
Equally late as 70 old ages ago, Sandy Gunn, a Cape Wrath shepherd, claimed he saw a mermaid on a goad of stone at Sandwood Bay. Other coastal inhabitants besides recall such brushs, even calling assorted landmarks. In Corwall there are several narratives affecting mermaids: at Patstow the seaport entryway is all but blocked by the Doom Bar, a sandbank put at that place by mermaid, we are told, in relation for being fired at by a adult male of the town. And the southern Cornish seashore between the small towns of Down Derry and Looe, the former town of Seaton was overwhelmed by sand because it was cursed by a mermaid injured by a crewman from the port.
Mermaid & # 8217 ; s Rock near Lamorna Cove was the hangout of a mermaid who would sing before a storm and so swim out to sea & # 8211 ; her beauty was such that immature work forces would follow, ne’er to re-emerge. At Zennor a mermaid was so entranced by the vocalizing of Matthew Trewella, the squire & # 8217 ; s boy, that she persuaded him to follow her ; he, excessively failed to to return, but his voice could be heard from clip to clip, coming from beneath the moving ridges. The small church in which he sang on land has a 15th & # 8211 ; century bench & # 8211 ; stop carved with a mermaid and her looking & # 8211 ; glass and comb.
On the other manus, mermaids could sometimes be helpful. Mermaid & # 8217 ; s Rock at Saundersfoot in Wales is so called because a mermaid was one time stranded there by the wane of the tide. She was returned to the sea by a passing mussel & # 8211 ; gatherer, and subsequently came back to show him with a bag of gold and Ag as a wages. In the Mull of Kintyre a Mackenzie chap helped another stranded mermaid who in return granted him his want, that he cpuld construct unsinkable boats from which no adult male would of all time be lost.
Sexual brotherhoods between worlds and both sea people and seals are the topic of many narratives, and assorted households claim unusual sea & # 8211 ; borne lineage: for illustration the Mc Veagh kin of Sutherland traces its descent from the confederation between a fisherman and a mermaid ; on the Western island of North Uist the McCodums have an ascendant who married a seal maiden ; and the familiar Welsh name of Morgan is sometimes held to intend & # 8220 ; born of the sea & # 8221 ; , once more indicating to the household tree which includes a mermaid or a Merman. Human wives brooding at sea with Mermans were allowed occasional visits to the land, but they had to take attention non to outstay & # 8211 ; and if they chanced to hear the blessing said in church they were ne’er able to rejoin their hubbies.
Matthew Arnold & # 8217 ; s poem & # 8220 ; The Forsaken Merman & # 8221 ; relates how one human married woman decides to abandon her sea hubby and kids. There is besides a Shetland narrative, this clip refering a sea married woman married to a land hubby:
On the island of Unst a adult male walking by the shore sees mermaids and Mermans dancing naked in the moonshine, the seal teguments which they have discarded prevarication on the sand. When they see the adult male, the terpsichoreans snatch up the teguments, become sea animals once more, and all dip into the moving ridges & # 8211 ; except one, for the adult male has taken clasp of the tegument. Its proprietor is a mermaid of outstanding beauty. And she has to remain on the shore. The adult male asks her to go his married woman, and she accepts. He keeps the tegument and carefully hides it.
The matrimony is successful, and the twosome has several kids. Yet the adult female is frequently drawn in the dark to the coast, where she is heard discoursing with a big seal in an unknown lingua. Old ages base on balls. During the class of a game one of the kids finds a seal tegument hidden in the cornstack. He mentions it to his female parent, and she takes it and returns to the sea. Her hubby hears the intelligence and tallies after her, geting by the shore to be told by his married woman: & # 8220 ; Farewell, and may all good attend you. I loved you really good when I lived on Earth, but I ever loved my first hubby more. & # 8221 ;
As we know from David Thomson & # 8217 ; s all right book & # 8220 ; The People of the Sea & # 8221 ; ( 1984 ) , such narratives are still widely told in parts of Ireland and in Scotland and may explicate why crewmans were loath to kill seals. There was besides a belief that seals embodied the psyche of drowned seamans.
The friendly mahimahi constantly brings good fortune to mariners, and has even been known to steer them to the right way. Equally late as January 1989 the newspapers reported that an Australian swimmer who had been attacked and wounded by a shark was saved from decease merely by the intercession of a group of mahimahis which drove off the marauder.
Besides worthy of reference here is another benevolent assistant of mariners lost in unfastened boats: a kindly shade known as the pilot of the & # 8220 ; Pinta & # 8221 ; . When all seems lost he will look in the bows of the boat and insistently indicate the manner to safety.
Other inhabitants of the deep divine fright and panic. The H2O Equus caballus of Wales and the Isle of Man & # 8211 ; the kelpy of Scotland & # 8211 ; grazes by the side of the sea or loch. If anyone is rash plenty to acquire on him, he rushes into the H2O and submerge the rider ; furthermore his dorsum can handily lengthen to suit any figure of people. There are several narratives believed of the H2O Equus caballus, for illustration, if he is harnessed to a Big Dipper he drags it into the sea. If he falls in love with a adult female he may take the signifier of a adult male to tribunal her & # 8211 ; merely if she recognises his true nature from the tell-tale sand in his hair will she hold a opportunity of get awaying, and so she must steal off while he sleeps. Legnd says that the H2O Equus caballus besides takes the form of an old adult female ; in this pretense he is put to bed with a bevy of beautiful maidens, but kills them all by sucking their blood, salvage for one who manages to run off. He pursues her but she jumps a running creek which, H2O Equus caballus though he is, he dare non cross.
Still more awful are the many sea monsters of which narratives are told. One played mayhem with the fish of the Solway Firth until the people planted a row of sharpened bets on which it impaled itself. Another snake & # 8211 ; like animal, the Stoor Worm, was so immense that its organic structure curled about the Earth. It took up abode off northern Scotland and made it known that a hebdomadal bringing of seven virgins was required, otherwise the towns and small towns would be devastated. Soon it was the bend of the male monarch & # 8217 ; s girl to be sacrificed, but her male parent announced that he would give her in anyone who would free him of the worm. Assipattle, the moony 7th boy of a husbandman, took up the challenge and set to sea in a little boat with an Fe pot incorporating a glowing peat ; he sailed into the monster & # 8217 ; s oral cavity, so down into its interior & # 8211 ; after seeking for some clip he found the liver, cut a hole in it, and inserted the peat. The liver shortly began to fire ferociously, and the worm retched out Assipattle and his boat. Its decease throes shook the universe: one of its dentitions became the Orkney Islands, the other Shetland ; the falling lingua scooped out the Baltic Sea, and the combustion liver turned into the volcanosof Iceland. The male monarch kept his promise, and the exultant Assipattle married his girl.
Possibly, the most celebrated of all H2O monsters is that of Loch Ness, foremost mentioned in a life of St Columba written in 700 AD.
Some 150 old ages earlier one of the saint & # 8217 ; s followings was seemingly swimming in the loch when the monster & # 8220 ; all of a sudden swam up to the surface, and with goggling oral cavity and with great howling rushed towards the adult male & # 8221 ; . Fortunately, Columba was watching and ordered the monster to turnback: it obeyed. The animal ( or its replacement ) so lay dormant for some 1 300 old ages, for the following recorded sighting was in 1871.
However, during the last 50 old ages at that place have been frequent studies and contentions. In1987 a painstaking and and expencive echo sounder scan of the loch revealed a traveling object of some 400 pounds in weight which scientists were unable to place. Sir Peter Scott dubbed the monster & # 8220 ; Nessiterras Rhombopteryx & # 8221 ; , after the diamond & # 8211 ; shaped fin shown on a exposure taken by some American visitants ; the Monster Exhibition Centre at Drumnadrochit on Loch Ness describes it as & # 8220 ; The World & # 8217 ; s Greatest Mystery & # 8221 ; . Tourists from all over the universe flock to see Loch Ness, monster and Centre.
Nautical imposts
The seas will ever be potentially unsafe for those who choose to sail them and most mariners tried difficult to avoid incurring the wrath of Davy Jones & # 8211 ; they one time were sometimes loath even to salvage submerging companions lest they deprive the deep of a victim which would function as a propitiatory forfeit though the quandary could be resolved by throwing the submerging adult male a rope or spar. This was a much less personal intercession than really set downing a manus or diving in to assist and therefore less hazardous.
Assorted shipboard ceremonials were observed and maintained sacredly: at Christmas a tree would be lashed to the top of the mast ( the usage is still followed, and on ships missing a mast the tree is tied to the railings on the highest deck ) . At midnight as New Year & # 8217 ; s Eve becomes New Year & # 8217 ; s Day the ship & # 8217 ; s bell is rung eight times for the old twelvemonth and eight times for the new & # 8211 ; midnight on a ship is usually eight bells & # 8211 ; the oldest member of the crew giving the first eight rings, the youngest the 2nd.
& # 8220 ; Burying the Dead Horse & # 8221 ; was a ceremonial which was continued in merchandiser ships until late in the 19th century, and kept up most late in vass on the Australian tally. The Equus caballus was a symbol for the month & # 8217 ; s wage advanced on shore ( and normally spent before sailing ) ; after 28 yearss at sea the progress was worked out. The Equus caballus & # 8217 ; s organic structure was made from a barrel, its legs from hay, straw or shaves covered with canvas, and the chief and tail of hemp. The animate being was hoisted to the chief yardarm and set on fire. It was allowed to blase for a short clip and was so cut loose and dropped into the sea. Musical concomitant was provided by the hovel & # 8220 ; Poor Old Horse & # 8221 ; :
Now he is dead and will decease no more,
And we say so, for we know so.
It makes his ribs experience really sore,
Oh, hapless old adult male.
He is gone and will travel no more,
And we say so, for we know so.
So goodbye, old Equus caballus,
We say adieus.
On sailing ships corporate work at the capstan, winch, pumps and halyards was frequently accompanied by peculiar vocals known as hovels.
In the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries large, full-rigged vass were conveying ladings of nitrate, guano and potassium nitrate to Britain to South America ports. When a ship was loaded and ready to sail unit of ammunition Cape Horn and place, the carpenter would do a big wooden cross to which ruddy and white visible radiations were fixed in the form of the configuration known as the Southern Cross. As this was hoisted to the caput of the mainmast, the crew would sing the hovel & # 8220 ; Hurrah, my male childs, we & # 8217 ; re homeward bound & # 8221 ; , and so the crew of every ship in seaport took bends to hearten the going vas.
Mariners traversing the equator for the first clip & # 8211 ; and sometimes the Torrid Zones of the polar circles & # 8211 ; are frequently put through a kind of baptism or induction ceremonial. The earliest recorded mention to such a ritual dates back to 1529 on a Gallic ship, but by the terminal of the undermentioned century English vass were involved in the same usage, which continues to this twenty-four hours in both Royal Navy and merchandiser service.
One of the crew appears as Neptune, complete with Crown, trident and elaborate face fungus ; others represent Queen Amphitrite, a Barber, a sawbones and assorted nymphs and bears. Neptune holds tribunal by the side of a big canvas bath full of sea – H2O, and any on board who have non antecedently crossed & # 8220 ; the Line & # 8221 ; are ceremoniously shaved with immense wooden razors, so exhaustively ducked. Finally, the victim is given a certification which protects him from the same ordeal on one future juncture. Even riders are put through a modified signifier of the proceedings, though adult females are given a still softer version of the intervention.
When a naval captain leaves his ship he can anticipate a ritual farewell. Even Prince Charles was unable to get away when in 1976 he relinquished bid of the minesweeper, HMS & # 8220 ; Bronington & # 8221 ; ; he was seized by white & # 8211 ; coated physicians ( his officers ) , placed in a wheelchair and & # 8220 ; invalided out & # 8221 ; to the cheers of his crew members who held up a streamer inscribed: & # 8220 ; Command has aged me & # 8221 ; .
Other Mariness departed in a less gay mode. When a adult male died at sea his organic structure would be sewn into canvas, weighted, and committed to the deep. The sailmaker was responsible for doing the shroud, and would ever set the last stitch through the cadaver & # 8217 ; s nose, guaranting that there was no mark of life and that the organic structure remained affiliated to the leaden canvas. This practise was followed at least until the sixtiess, the sailmaker having a bottle of rum for his work. Nowadays the organic structures are rarely buried at sea but are refrigerated and brought back to land. However, those consigning a organic structure in this manner still have the traditional bottle of rum for their problem.
Chapter 3
We have had a expression at some samples of good and carefully preserved British folklore that relates about the British & # 8220 ; waterworld & # 8221 ; . But the inquiry of our clip no less of import is whether the people with such an fondness for their land attempt to continue it from the injury that may do our age of extremely developed machines, ships, Dunkers, etc.
Britain & # 8217 ; s Marine, coastal and inland Waterss are by and large clean: some 95 % of rivers, watercourses and canals are of good or just quality, a much higher figure than in most other European states. However their cleanliness can non be taken for granted, and so continuing stairss are being taken to cover with staying menaces. Discharges to H2O from the most potentially harmful procedures are increasingly going capable to mandate under IPC.
Government ordinances for a new system of sorting H2O in England and Wales came into force in May 1994. This system will supply the footing for puting statutory H2O quality aims ( SWQO ) , ab initio on a test footing in a little figure of catchment countries where their effectivity can be assessed. The aims, which will be phased in bit by bit, will stipulate for each single stretch of H2O the criterions that should be reached and the mark day of the month for accomplishing them. The system of SWQOs will supply the model to put discharge consents. Once aims are set, the endeavors will be under a responsibility to guarantee that they are met.
There have been of import developments in commanding the sea disposal of wastes in recent old ages. The incineration of wastes at sea was halted in 1990 and the dumping of industrial waste ended in 1992. In February 1994 the Government announced British credence of an internationally agreed prohibition on the dumping of low- and intermediate & # 8211 ; degree wastes was already banned. Britain had non in fact dumped any radioactive waste at sea for some old ages preveously. Britain is committed to phasing out the dumping of sewerage sludge at sea by the terminal of 1998. Thereafter merely dredged stuff from ports, seaports and the similar will routinely be approved for sea disposal.
Proposals for decommissioning Britain & # 8217 ; s 200 offshore installings are decided on a instance & # 8211 ; by & # 8211 ; instance footing, looking for the best operable environmental option and detecting really strict international understandings and guidelines.
Although non a major beginning of H2O pollution incidents, farms can stand for a job. Many pollution incidents result from silage wastewater or slurry leaking and entrance watercourses ; undiluted farm slurry can be up to 100 times, more polluting than natural domestic sewerage. Regulations set minimal building criterions for new or well altered farm waste managing installations. Farmers are required to better bing installings where there is a important hazard of pollution. The Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food publishes a & # 8220 ; Code of Good Agricultural Practice for the Protection of Water & # 8221 ; . This gives husbandmans counsel on, among other things, the planning and direction of the disposal of their farm wastes. The Ministry besides has L2 million research and development programme to analyze jobs of farm waste and to understate pollution.
Britain is a signer to the 1992 North East Atlantic Convention, which tackles pollution from land & # 8211 ; based beginnings, offshore installings and dumping. It besides provides for monitoring and appraisal of the quality of H2O in the convention & # 8217 ; s country. In order to understate the environmental effects of seaward oil and gas operations, particular conditions designed to protect the environment – & # 8211 ; set in audience with environmental involvements & # 8211 ; are included in licenses for oil and gas geographic expedition.
Pollution from ships is controlled under international understandings, which cover affairs such as oil discharges and disposal of refuse. British Torahs implementing such understandings are adhering non merely on all ships in British Waterss, but besides on British ships all over the universe. The Marine Pollution Control Unit ( MPCU ) , portion of the Coastguard Agency, is responsible for covering with spillage of oil or other substances from ships in sea.
So great attention is being taken to pull off to continue all that cherished that Britain has. Keeping the Waterss in a good conditions would assist to maintain the traditions connected with it every bit good, and to go through them on to other coevalss.
There is no other manner to understanding people, their character, past and present but through its lingual and cultural heritage. If a individual is determined to acquire a closer familiarity with the interior universe of the Gallic, Italian or English, he should analyze their linguistic communication and civilization, because merely through this he can truly acquire in touch with a unusual state. Finding out some facts, stuffs on this or that state he would no more than get informed, develop his rational abilities and that of the rational memory. But lingual and cultural instruction inspires inventive thought, influences his emotions and signifiers his gustatory sensation. Linguistic stuffs, and the national folklore is surely an of import portion of it, are inseparable from the linguistic communication: the linguistic communication itself plays the portion of the informational beginning of the national history and civilization.
So in this work we showed the indispensable function of the English folklore associating about the H2O universe of the state in the development of the English linguistic communication, forming of the national individuality and character and its close connexion with the British history.
& # 1057 ; & # 1087 ; & # 1080 ; & # 1089 ; & # 1086 ; & # 1082 ;
& # 1083 ; & # 1080 ; & # 1090 ; & # 1077 ; & # 1088 ; & # 1072 ; & # 1090 ; & # 1091 ; & # 1088 ; & # 1099 ;
Dorothy Whitelock & # 8220 ; The Beginnings of English Society & # 8221 ; , Penguin 1977
Roy Palmer & # 8220 ; Britain & # 8217 ; s Living Folklore & # 8221 ; , Oxford 1986
A.R.Myers & # 8220 ; England in the Late Middle Ages & # 8221 ; , Penguin 1980
& # 1042 ; & # 1077 ; & # 1088 ; & # 1077 ; & # 1097 ; & # 1072 ; & # 1075 ; & # 1080 ; & # 1085 ; & # 1045 ; . & # 1043 ; . , & # 1050 ; & # 1086 ; & # 1089 ; & # 1090 ; & # 1086 ; & # 1084 ; & # 1072 ; & # 1088 ; & # 1086 ; & # 1074 ; & # 1042 ; . & # 1050 ; . & # 171 ; & # 1071 ; & # 1079 ; & # 1099 ; & # 1082 ; & # 1080 ; & # 1082 ; & # 1091 ; & # 1083 ; & # 1100 ; & # 1090 ; & # 1091 ; & # 1088 ; & # 1072 ; & # 187 ; . & # 1052 ; & # 1086 ; & # 1089 ; & # 1082 ; & # 1074 ; & # 1072 ; , 1983.
Dictionary of the British Mythology, Oxford 1990
& # 8220 ; British Cultural Identities & # 8221 ; , 1993
