Advertising as a Medium of Gender-Biased Communication

Course paper

Ad AS A MEDIUM OF GENDER-BIASED COMMUNICATION

Contentss

Introduction

1. Cultural Preconditions of Gender Stereotypes in Communication

1.1 Intercultural position on gender and communicating

1.2 Proxemicss and gender

2. Manifestation of Gender Bias in Mass Communication

2.1 Gender Stereotyping in Television Ads

2.2 Gender function pigeonholing in wireless advertizements

3. Language Issues in Ad

3.1 Gender and linguistic communication use

3.2 Differences in linguistic communication use and worldview

3.3 Voiceover features

3.4 Word pick

3.5 Use of ArgumentsConclusion

Conclusion Conclusion

Mentions

Introduction Introduction

Gender issues in communicating have attracted attending of many research workers. There has been considerable involvement in the possible parts of the mass media to the beginnings and care of gender functions ( Courtney & A ; Whipple, 1974 ; Culley & A ; Bennett, 1976 ; Dominick & A ; Rausch, 1972 ; Furnham, Abramsky & A ; Gunter, 1997 ; Furnham & A ; Skae, 1996 ; Kolbe & A ; Langefeld, 1993 ; O’Donnell & A ; O’Donnell, 1978 ) . Studiesusing educational books ( Lobban, 1975 ) , image books ( Weitzman, Eiffer, Hokada, & A ; Ross, 1972 ) , and amusing strips ( Potkay & A ; Potkay, 1984 ) have shown that work forces and adult females are portrayed in stereotyped manner, proposing that the media are by and big consistent in their gender function stereotyping, [ 1 ]
which underlies the importance of the present research.

The intent of this research is to uncover gender pigeonholing in advertisement. Anchoring on the accessible beginnings study, the paper offers an overview of the important function that mass communicating dramas in modern-day gender issues. At a closer expression, the communicating position allows us to analyze gender communicating as a signifier of intercultural communicating. It can be assumed so that, holding gained a considerable portion of the communicating procedure, mass media are capable to gender stereotypes, which is examined on Television and wireless advertisement. Concentrating on these two types of media is dictated by their primary impact channel & # 8212 ; auditory, which makes Television and wireless advertizements more hard to be ignored by the audience than similar messages in the printed types of mass media. The analysis considers both societal and lingual issues, taking at observing some general characteristics of how gender prejudice is manifested in advertizements.

The paper consists of the debut, three chapters, decision, mention list ( beginnings straight quoted ) and the list of plants consulted ( beginnings used during the research but non referred to in the text of this paper ) .

1. Cultural Preconditions of Gender Stereotypes in Communication

1.1 Intercultural position on gender and communicating

Cross-gender communicating is seen by many bookmans ( such as Porter, Samovar, [ 2 ]
and Penington [ 3 ]
) as a signifier of intercultural communicating. The components of intercultural communicating are points at which important differences may happen in communicating forms, wonts, and traditions across civilizations.

Communicative patterns non merely reflect impressions about gender, but they besides create cultural constructs of gender. Message beginnings privileged by society as legitimate cognition generators create a web of socially compelling discourses. Therefore, spiritual, mythic, philosophic, and scientific discourses teach us, among other things, about society ‘s values and regulations related to gender. It is no accident, so, that American stereotypes focus on the active male and the back uping female, or that Plato defined adult females as “ lesser work forces, ” or that Aristotle described adult females as “ a malformation, a bastardly male, ” or that St. Thomas Aquinas argued that God should non hold created adult females, or that phrenologists of the 19th century argued that adult females ‘s smaller caputs justified their low-level place in society ( therefore originating all the “ reasonably small caput ” rhetoric about adult females ) , or that Freud believed adult females had “ small sense of justness, ” and so on. [ 4 ]

In add-on, mass mediated messages offer the most modern-day, powerful, technologically and rhetorically sophisticated stereotypes for determining cultural world. The beauty, diet, and advertisement industries are the most obvious, best researched illustrations of modern-day, self-aware myth-makers who control cultural constructs ( and acceptable images ) of gender ( of what it takes and means to be male or female, masculine or feminine ) . [ 5 ]
The chances for bring forthing ( and having ) mass mediated messages is reeling. So excessively is the chance for maltreatment.

Communication is of cardinal concern when turn toing gender issues. Rhetorical messages in big portion find what we consider knowledge, what cognition we privilege, and what values we espouse. Furthermore, the function of civilization in communicating patterns directs us to an intercultural position on gender and communicating.

1.2 Proxemicss and gender

“ Space is a primary agencies by which a civilization designates who is of import, who has privilege. “ [ 6 ]
Differences in the sum of infinite given to and taken by adult females and work forces reflect social gender functions. So, adult females are less likely than work forces to hold their ain private infinite within the household place. And, in the workplace, employees in the traditionally female function, secretary, by and large have a smaller infinite than the employee in the traditionally male function, executive. Responses to invasion of infinite besides differ between work forces and adult females. While work forces may react sharply, adult females tend to give infinite instead than dispute the interloper. These are but a few illustrations of the ways in which differences in communicating between the genders fit classs of primary elements in intercultural communicating. The point is that these differences can make jobs in communicating. Julia Wood devotes a whole chapter of her book Gendered Lives to the ways in which these jobs are manifest in the educational system. We might presume excessively that the same jobs are likely to see the university library every bit good. An abridged list of the concerns Woods discusses includes issues familiar to us all: deficiency of female function theoretical accounts, curricular content which misrepresents white work forces as criterion and renders adult females unseeable, colored communicating in the schoolroom ( in both student-faculty and student-counsellor communicating adult females are non taken earnestly ) . ( Wood, pp. 206-229. )

As it follows from the above said, gender stereotypes occur in communicating forms, wonts, and traditions across civilizations, turn outing that gender communicating is a signifier of intercultural communicating.

2. 2.
Manifestation of Gender Bias in Mass Communication Manifestation of Gender Bias in Mass Communication

Continuing from the above analysis, it is of involvement to measure the extent to which the mass media have responded to cultural tendencies in the society. It can be assumed that, holding gained a considerable portion of the communicating procedure, mass media are capable to gender stereotypes. There has been considerable recent involvement in the possible parts of the mass media to the beginnings and care of gender functions [ 7 ]
. Surveies utilizing educational books [ 8 ]
, image books [ 9 ]
, and amusing strips [ 10 ]
hold shown that work forces and adult females are portrayed in stereotyped manner proposing that the media are by and big consistent in their gender function pigeonholing. [ 11 ]

In this context it is interesting to analyze if and how stereotypes are reflected in Television and wireless advertisement. The pick of these two types of media for more elaborate analysis can be explained by their nature. Namely, every bit long as their primary impact on the audience is made through the audile channel, the advertizements included into Television and wireless plans are more hard to be skipped by the hearers and/or viewing audiences than similar advertisement in the printed types of mass media.

2.1 Gender Stereotyping inTV Ads 2.1 Gender Stereotyping inTV Ads

advertisement gender communicating

Surveies in this country show that Television advertizements aimed at work forces differ from those aimed at adult females. This is reflected non merely in aiming a peculiar merchandise at a peculiar audience. In making so, we can detect, foremost, utilizing specific twenty-four hours parts ( daylight, flushing primetime and weekend afternoon athleticss ) as a model for the supposed mark audience ( adult females, household and work forces severally ) . Second, and this is a more serious issue, the advertizements aimed at one sex tend to portray gender otherwise from the advertizements aimed at the other sex. [ 12 ]

There is now reasonably widespread conceptual understanding and empirical support for the position that telecasting can and does deeply act upon the viewing audiences ‘ rational development, change their attitudes, promote attitudes and behaviors, and spread some stereotypes. [ 13 ]

It is as a socialization agent that telecasting is peculiarly powerful. Because sing telecasting involves the observation of others ‘ behavior and its support eventualities, telecasting is considered to be a major vehicle through which the viewing audiences learn about behaviors, peculiarly gender-appropriate behaviors, and about the comparative desirableness of executing those behaviors. [ 14 ]

McArthur and Resko [ 15 ]
found that overall work forces appeared more frequently than adult females in telecasting advertizements and that work forces and adult females differed in footings of credibleness ( work forces being governments and adult females users ) , function ( adult females portrayed in footings of their relationship to others and work forces in a function independent of others ) , location ( work forces shown in occupational scenes and adult females in the place ) , persuasive statements ( work forces gave more `scientific ‘ statements than adult females ) , wagess ( adult females were shown obtaining blessing of household and males, while obtained work forces societal and career promotion ) and merchandise type ( work forces were governments on merchandises used chiefly by adult females ) .

Despite betterments since the 1970ss in the position of female characters, the Television commercials of the early 1880ss still revealed stereotyped gender functions. Male characters for illustration, were still more likely to be portrayed as employed outside the place while adult females were typically found working in the place. Males were besides given greater credibleness than were females. Male and female grownup characters were besides still clearly associated with activities traditionally associated with their gender ( i.e. work forces were associated with cut downing the lawn, while adult females were associated with making the dishes ) . Finally, they discovered that 90 per centum of commercials had male storytellers, and that this was true even in the instance of commercials for stereotypically female merchandises. Besides, there was a clearly gendered association of loud music and dark scenes with male characters. This is of importance, as the storyteller is considered the voice of authorization. By choosing preponderantly male storytellers, advertizers are placing males as the most deserving of regard. They are working from the premise that viewing audiences are more likely to believe what they are told by a male voice. Finally, male characters were most frequently shown entirely, take parting in stereotypically male behavior. [ 16 ]

Manstead and McCulloch [ 17 ]
assessed the state of affairs in Great Britain utilizing 170 telecasting commercials so legitimate comparings could be made. The overall consequences were unambiguous and comparable to those of the American survey, but the portraiture of work forces and adult females on telecasting showed British advertizements at the clip to be more gender function stereotyped.

More recent surveies have been done, specifically on telecasting advertizements, in Australia [ 18 ]
, Kenya [ 19 ]
, every bit good as America [ 20 ]
, Canada [ 21 ]
, Italy [ 22 ]
and Great Britain [ 23 ]
. Reproductions over clip have shown surprisingly few differences. The research workers regarded six characteristics: the merchandise advertised, gender of the voice-over announcer, gender of the on-camera merchandise representative, puting, age, and business of the characters.

The consequences of surveies indicate that work forces and adult females looking in telecasting commercials were portrayed in non independent ways. The nature of these associations were systematic and in line with traditional gender-role stereotypes. These findings reveal that telecasting commercials manifest traditional gender function stereotypes. [ 24 ]

The male figures ‘ typical credibleness footing as an authorization of the advertised merchandise complements old findings.

Work forces were most likely to be portrayed as interviewers, storytellers, or famous persons in occupational scenes or in unspecified locations, while adult females were most likely dependant on others. However the difference between the two ( males and females ) was non every bit great as expected refering the professional function.

Location is still a important forecaster of gender stereotyping. Females are more frequently portrayed at place while males are more often portrayed during leisure/outdoor.

Age is frequently one of the best indexs of sex-role stereotyping. Although surveies define “ immature, ” “ middle-age, ” and “ old ” on somewhat different graduated tables, a prevailing image is indicated: females are systematically shown as younger than males. Most surveies show that cardinal figures are dominated by middle-aged males and immature females. The word picture of female figures as immature is a typical characteristic of advertizements from Australia and United States [ 25 ]
. This implies that advertizers consider it of import for adult females to be portrayed as vernal and accordingly attractive, whereas this is non as of import for work forces. Alternatively male figures are depicted as being older – most male figures are in-between aged – which may heighten this normally presented image as important experts.

The content class “ reward types ” showed many gender function effects. There is a important association between gender of merchandise user and wages type. The general form is that males are shown to be associated with enjoyable wagess, while females are more depicted as rewarded with societal blessing and/or self-enhancement.

Womans were more likely to look in adverts for organic structure merchandises and most likely to be associated with nutrient merchandises.

2.2 Gender function pigeonholing in wireless advertizements 2.2 Gender function pigeonholing in wireless advertizements

Less work appears to hold been done on gender functions on wireless. [ 26 ]

A survey by Furnham and Schofield [ 27 ]
compared the extent of gender function pigeonholing in commercials on British wireless with that of the content of commercials on telecasting content. They found that in wireless advertizements work forces were more frequently portrayed as governments on merchandises and adult females as users of merchandises ; work forces were more likely to be portrayed as storytellers or famous persons than adult females ; and adult females were more likely to be portrayed in the place than adult male. Furnham and Schofield concluded that, compared with advertizements on British telecasting, British wireless advertizements were gender function stereotyped on fewer dimensions. Hurtz & A ; Durkin [ 28 ]
replicated the survey utilizing 100 Western Australian wireless advertizements. They found that males were more frequently cardinal characters ; more frequently in authorization functions. Females were most frequently portrayed in dependent functions and in their place, while they were portrayed as clients or girlfriends in the workplace.

The research was concentrated on the undermentioned parametric quantities.

Credibility. Cardinal figures were, categorized as “ user ” when they were depicted chiefly as users of the advertised merchandise, while those who were depicted chiefly as beginnings of information refering the merchandise were categorized as “ authorization. ” Cardinal figures depicted as neither usage nor governments were categorized as “ other. ”

Role. Cardinal figures were classified harmonizing to one of the undermentioned evident functions: “ dependant, ” intending chiefly financially dependent ( partner, home-maker, girlfriend ) , “ narrator/celebrity, ” “ professional, ” or “ other ” ( including “ worker ” ) .

Location. Cardinal figures were categorized harmonizing to the location in which they were depicted, either: “ place, ” “ occupational scene, ” or “ other. ”

Type of wages. Four classs of wages were coded: “ self-enhancement ” where the purported benefit of the merchandise was an betterment in wellness or visual aspect, “ practical ” where the purported benefit was a economy of clip or attempt, or where the chief accent was on the relation in expensiveness of the merchandise, “ societal or career promotion ” where it was suggested that ownership of the merchandise would help advancement in some societal or occupational hierarchy, “ other ” where the wagess could non be coded in any of the above ( including `family blessing ‘ and `fun/enjoyment ‘ ” ) .

Type of Product. Four classs were coded: “ Body/Home/Food ” where the merchandise or service involved bodily wellness, hygiene, cleaning, the place or housekeeping, nutrient, and imbibe, “ Auto/Technical/Occupational ” which included cars and accoutrements, and proficient and occupational merchandises ; and “ other ” if none of the above classs was applicable.

Narrator. Cardinal figures were categorized harmonizing to whether they portrayed a character, ( “ character ” ) or narrator/presenter ( “ impersonal ” ) . [ 29 ]

The analysis of the research information showed that, in all, merely three informations were important: function, wages, and merchandise. On two specific standards, work forces and adult females were portrayed in significantly different ways on British wireless advertizements. Overall work forces were more frequently depicted proposing practical and societal calling promotion as a wages for merchandise purchase, and adult females as proposing self-enhancement as a wages for the merchandise. Work force were more likely to be portrayed in advertizements for car, proficient and occupational merchandises and adult females more likely to look in advertizements for organic structure, place and nutrient merchandises. In add-on, adult females were more likely than work forces to be shown in dependent functions. Males were besides significantly more likely to hold a function of narrator/celebrity than females were.

It is concluded that the sum of gender function pigeonholing in advertizements varies depending on the mark audience. There are necessarily many other societal, economic and political factors that influence gender function development, portraiture and apprehension. Further, audiences are selective in footings of when they listen to which station/channel, and why.

3. 3.
Language Issues in Advertising Language Issues in Ad

Recognition of the possible influence of mass media on gender-role development has spurred a go oning involvement in supervising the grade of gender-role stereotyping in commercials. Get downing in the early 1970s, research workers assessed the grade of stereotyping by analysing the content of gender-role messages. [ 30 ]
The pick to concentrate on content is most likely attributable to the long-established tradition of content analysis. For decennaries it has been used as an aim, systematic, and quantitative method for analysing the manifest characteristics of communicating. It is based on the premise that information about the nature of people ‘s psychological provinces and societal functions can be obtained by analyzing their pick of linguistic communication and other discernible, seeable features.

3.1 Gender and linguistic communication use 3.1 Gender and linguistic communication use

From a really early age, males and females are taught different lingual patterns. Communicative behavior that are acceptable for male childs, for illustration, may be considered wholly inappropriate for misss. Hence, the organic structure of research on adult females and linguistic communication reveals that adult females experience lingual favoritism in two ways: in the manner they are taught to utilize linguistic communication, and in the manner general linguistic communication use treats them. [ 31 ]
So, for illustration, adult females reflect their function in the societal order by following lingual patterns such as utilizing tag inquiries, qualifiers, and fillers to soften their messages. Likewise, traditionally adult females were identified by their association with work forces, and we know that occupational rubrics indicated which occupations were “ for work forces ” and which were “ for adult females. ” While much of this has changed today, the society retains a inclination to connote that masculinity, after all, is the criterion for normality ( a female doctor may still be referred to as a “ adult female physician, ” and while a female commission chair may be called the “ chair ” or the “ president, ” a male in that function will more likely be called “ president ” ) . [ 32 ]
What we are taught about gender, so, is reflected in our linguistic communication use.

Johnson and Young [ 33 ]
suggest that the manner linguistic communication in advertisement is used to associate a peculiar merchandise to a peculiar gender polarizes differences between genders. While in world many male childs demonstrate feelings and behaviors labelled as “ feminine, ” and vice-versa, these telecasting ads create the feeling that certain behaviors are sole to one or the other gender. Young kids exposed to this type of advertisement have non yet developed the thought accomplishments that would let them to see these ads critically. Johnson and Young are concerned that such ads present stereotypes that may impede male childs and misss from acknowledging themselves as the composite and multifaceted persons that they are.

3.2 Differences in linguistic communication use and worldview 3.2 Differences in linguistic communication use and worldview

Many bookmans describe the female worldview as significantly different from the male worldview. Carol Gilligan states that “ female individuality revolves around interconnection and relationship. ” Conversely, she argues that male individuality “ stresses separation and independency. “ [ 34 ]

Obviously, differences in linguistic communication use and worldview are woven together and hard to divide. Hence differences between female and male worldviews, like differences between Asiatic and American worldviews or European and Native American worldviews, may significantly impact communicating. Differences in worldviews can non be discussed without speaking about linguistic communication, since our position of the universe is expressed through linguistic communication and other symbol systems. Deborah Tannen argues that “ communicating between work forces and adult females can be like transverse cultural communicating, quarry to a clang of colloquial manners. “ [ 35 ]
This is due to differences in the manner work forces and adult females by and large look at the universe. Therefore, it is no happenstance that adult females see talk as the kernel of a relationship while work forces use talk to exercise control, preserve independency, and enhance position. [ 36 ]
The ways in which constructs of societal relationships ( and their attendant communicating forms ) differ between genders are parallel to gender differences in worldview.

The difference in the spoken speech pattern was besides polarized between genders. The speech pattern used by cardinal figures in advertisement was coded into two classs “ standard ” ( for the research on wireless advertizements it was when an English BBC type speech pattern was spoken ) , or “ other ” if it was any other speech pattern ( including “ Londoner ” and “ regional ” ) . [ 37 ]

Language besides reflects differences in societal position between genders. Research on gender and linguistic communication reveals that female linguistic communication schemes constantly emulate the subsidiary, unaggressive function of adult females in Western society. And, linguistic communication about adult females does no better.

3.3 Voiceover features 3.3 Voiceover features

The observations show that in advertisement males are likely to look as voice-overs and females to be depicted visually. The higher proportion of males consisting the voice-over class suggests that it is work forces much more than adult females who are considered to hold knowledge about merchandises. Therefore, the male bastion of important voice continues unharmed. [ 38 ]

Contemporary research by Fern Johnson [ 39 ]
shows that even ads for kids feature male voice-overs. Ads for misss normally, but non ever, used female voice-overs. Normally an grownup voice was used for the male voice-overs, but about one-sixth of the girl-oriented ads used a miss ‘s voice for the voice-over. Voices, whether male or female, were caricatured in the bulk of ads, with male voices frequently sounding unnaturally deep, beefy or loud, and female voices remarkably high-pitched, screaky, or sing-song.

Although adult females have a repute for being more verbal than work forces, male childs were more likely to be talking in ads demoing both male childs and misss.

Levingstone and Green ‘s [ 40 ]
besides study that silence is presented as a peculiar feminine quality.

3.4 Word pick 3.4 Word pick

Verbs provide hints to the type of action being expressed, the agent of the action, and the activity being undertaken. Johnson and Young [ 41 ]
classified the verbs used in the ads into five classs:

& # 183 ; Action verbs associating to physical motion or gesture.

& # 183 ; Verbs bespeaking competition or devastation.

& # 183 ; Agency/control verbs bespeaking that the child consumer can exert power or control.

& # 183 ; Verbs bespeaking limited activity or a province of being.

& # 183 ; Feeling and fostering verbs Feeling/nurturing verbs were used entirely in girl-oriented ads, while competition/destruction verbs were used about entirely in ads directed towards male childs.

& # 183 ; Action verbs were more equally distributed between ads for male childs and misss, but agency/control verbs were more likely to be used for male childs and limited activity verbs in ads for misss. The word “ power ” was used in 21 % of the ads oriented towards male childs, but merely mentioned one time in ads for misss.

It can be assumed that a

dvertising for kids reflects the general inclinations of mass mediated commercials for the grownup audience, and a particular research may turn out that linguistic communication issues will work likewise in the whole majority of the examined stuff.
3.5 Use of Arguments 3.5 Use of Arguments

Cardinal figures were categorized harmonizing to the type of statements they presented in favor of the advertised merchandise. Arguments were classified as “ scientific ” if they contained or purported to incorporate factual grounds refering the merchandise or as “ non-scientific ” if they merely consisted of sentiments or testimonies, and as “ none ” if the cardinal figure offered no statement. [ 42 ]
The scrutiny shows that in utilizing persuasive statements work forces gave more `scientific ‘ statements than adult females. [ 43 ]

A reappraisal and comparing of 14 surveies done on five continents of sex-role stereotyping in telecasting commercials over 25 old ages [ 44 ]
show that “ end remark ” is still extremely declarative of sex-stereotyping. Males more often offer an terminal remark in an advertizement, whereas females often do non give any end remark.

As we can reason, linguistic communication is a graphic contemplation of gender stereotypes in mass mediated advertizements, attesting the prejudice on the lexical, phonic, semantic and matter-of-fact degrees.

Conclusion Conclusion

The given survey makes it possible to reason the followers.

1. It is proved that gender stereotypes in communicating are culturally preconditioned. That is, cross-gender communicating can be considered as cross-culture communicating, including issues of behaviour traditions and proxemics. The inclination to measure another ‘s civilization as inferior to our ain is possibly the most hard stumbling block to avoid, particularly when using it to gender communicating. So, alternatively of going annoyed by a male ‘s aggressive communicating manner, we should acknowledge that it is a manner which is every bit much a portion of his individuality as an cultural culinary art or a spiritual tradition is portion of a civilization.

2. It is shown that mass communicating, and specifically Television and wireless advertisement, is a contemplation of gender stereotyping in society. Mass mediated messages offer the most modern-day, powerful, technologically and rhetorically sophisticated stereotypes for determining cultural world. Furthermore, mass media do non merely actively exploit colored theoretical accounts, but they besides negatively act upon the audience by engrafting the gender stereotypes into the viewing audiences and hearers ‘ scruples.

3. Analysis of linguistic communication use in advertisement proves that it besides reflects culturally preconditioned gender prejudice manifested on the lexical, phonic, semantic and matter-of-fact degrees.

By larning non to presume that work forces and adult females are the same, we can go more sensitive to the fact that work forces and adult females ‘s values and ends may differ, and by and large their verbal and gestural linguistic communication will change every bit good. Conversely, consciousness of social prepossessions and stereotypes which portray the other sex as “ different, ” or “ opposite, ” can assist us to avoid such stereotypes. Equally long as the undertaking in bettering intercultural communicating is awareness and regard instead than rating, this consciousness can assist to develop effectual communicating when talking across genders. Ultimately, guidelines from this survey may be utile in bettering gender communicating in mass media and, more specifically, in advertisement.

Mentions Mentions

1.Aquinas.
Summa Theologica. & # 8211 ; Quoted in Women in Western Thought. & # 8211 ; Ed. Martha LeeOsborne
. & # 8211 ; New York: Random House, 1979. & # 8211 ; P. 68.

2.Aristotle
. Metaphysicss. Quoted inMiles
, Rosalind. The Women ‘s History of the World. & # 8211 ; Topsfield, MA: Salem House, 1989. & # 8211 ; P. 57.

3.Arliss
, Laurie P. Gender Communication. & # 8211 ; Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1991. & # 8211 ; P. 12-33.

4.Bandura
, A. Social larning theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1977.

5.Courtney
, A. E. , & A ;Whipple
, T W. Women in Television commercials. Journal of Communication, 1974, 24, & # 8211 ; P. 110-118.

6.Craig
, R. Stephen. The Consequence of Television Day Part on Gender Portrayals in Television Commercials: A Contented Analysis, in Sex Roles 26 ( 5/6 ) , 1992. & # 8211 ; P, 197-211. & # 8211 ; hypertext transfer protocol: //www.aber.ac.uk/media/Students/lmg9309.html

7.Craig
, R. Stephen. The Consequence of Television Day Part on Gender Portrayals in Television Commercials: A Contented Analysis, in Sex Roles 26 ( 5/6 ) , 1992. & # 8211 ; P, 197-211. & # 8211 ; hypertext transfer protocol: //www.aber.ac.uk/media/Students/lmg9309.html

8.Culley
, J. , & A ;Bennett
, R. Selling adult females, selling inkinesss. Journal of Communication, 1976, 26. & # 8211 ; P. 160-174.

9.Dominique
, J. R. , & A ;Rausch
, G. E. The image of adult females in web Television commercials. Journal of Broadcasting, 1972, 16. & # 8211 ; P. 259-265.

10.Freud ‘s
missive to Martha Bernays, quoted inMiles
, Rosalind. The Women ‘s History of the World. & # 8211 ; Topsfield, MA: Salem House, 1989. & # 8211 ; P. 222.

11.Furnham
, A. , & A ;Bitar
, N. The stereotypic portraiture of work forces and adult females in British telecasting advertizements. Sexual activity Roles, 1993, 29. & # 8211 ; P. 297-310.

12.Furnham
, A. , & A ;Schofield
, S. Sex function pigeonholing in British wireless advertizements. British Journal of Social Psychology, 1986, 25. & # 8211 ; P. 165-171.

13.Furnham
, A. , & A ;Skae
, E. Changes in the stereotyped portraiture of work forces and adult females in British telecasting advertizements. European Psychologist, 1997, 2. & # 8211 ; P. 44-51.

14.Furnham
, A. , & A ;Voli
, V. Gender stereotypes in Italian telecasting advertizements. Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic Media, 1989, 33. & # 8211 ; P. 175-185.

15.Furnham
, A. ,Abramsky
, S. , & A ;Gunter
, B. A cross-cultural content analysis of kids ‘s telecasting advertizements. Sexual activity Roles, 1997, 37. & # 8211 ; P. 91-99.

16.Furnham
, Adrian. Gender function pigeonholing in advertizements on two British wireless Stationss. & # 8211 ; hypertext transfer protocol: //www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m2294/is_1_40/ai_54250825/print

17.Gilligan
, Carol. In a Different Voice: Psychological Theory and Women ‘s Development. & # 8211 ; Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press, 1982.

18.Gilly
, M. Gender functions in advertisement: A comparing of telecasting advertizements in Australia, Mexico, and the United States. In Journal of Marketing, 1988, 52. & # 8211 ; P. 75-85.

19.Gilly
, M. Sex functions in advertisement: A comparing of telecasting advertizements in Australia, Mexico and the United States. Journal of Marketing, 1988, 4. & # 8211 ; P. 75-85.

20.Hurtz
, W. , & A ;Durkin
, K. Gender function pigeonholing in Australian wireless commercials. Sexual activity Roles, 1997, 36. & # 8211 ; P. 103-114.

21.Johnson
, Fern. As seen on Television: Take Care of Me Twins vs Electronic Karate Fighters. & # 8211 ; hypertext transfer protocol: //www.clarku.edu/activelearning/departments/english/johnson/johnsonD.cfm

22.Kolbe
, R. , & A ;Langefeld
, C. Appraising gender function portraitures in Television commercials. Sexual activity Roles, 1993, 28. & # 8211 ; P. 393-417.

23.Kolbe
, R. , & A ;Langefeld
, C. Appraising gender function portraitures in Television commercials. Sexual activity Roles, 1993, 28. & # 8211 ; P. 393-417.

24.Lakoff
, Robin. Language and Women ‘s Place. & # 8211 ; New York: Harper & A ; Row, 1975.

25.Levingstone
, S. , & A ;Green
, G. Television advertizements and the portraiture of gender. In British Journal of Social Psychology, 1986, 25. & # 8211 ; P. 149-154.

26.Lobban
, G. Sex functions in reading strategies. Educational Review, 1975, 27. & # 8211 ; P. 202-210.

27.Mazzella
, C. ,Durkin
, K. ,Cerini
, E. , & A ;Buralli
, P. Sex-role pigeonholing in Australian-television advertizements, Sex Roles, 1992, 26. & # 8211 ; P. 243-259.

28.McArthur
, L. Z. , & A ;Resko
, B. G. The portraiture of work forces and adult females in American telecasting commercials. Journal of Social Psychology, 1975, 97. & # 8211 ; P. 209-220.

29.McArthur
, L. Z. , & A ;Resko
, B. G. The portraiture of work forces and adult females in American telecasting. In Journal of Social Psychology, 1975, 97. & # 8211 ; P. 209-220.

30.Mulvaney
, Becky Michele. Gender Differences in Communication: An Intercultural Experience. & # 8211 ; Copyright 1994 by Becky Mulvaney: hypertext transfer protocol: //feminism.eserver.org/gender-differences.txt

31.Mwangi
, M. Gender roles portrayed in Kenyan telecasting commercials. Sexual activity Roles, 1996, 34. & # 8211 ; P. 205-214.

32.Neto
, Felix andPinto
, Isabel.Gender
stereotypes in Lusitanian telecasting advertizements.
In Sexual activity Functions: A Journal of Research, July, 1998. & # 8211 ; P. 45-46. & # 8211 ; hypertext transfer protocol: //www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m2294/is_n1-2_v39/ai_21136467

33.O’Donnell
, W. J. , & A ;O’Donnell
, K. J. Update: Sexual activity function messages in Television commercials. Journal of Communication, 1978, 28. & # 8211 ; P. 156-158.

34.Penington
, Dorothy L. “ Intercultural Communication, ” // Intercultural Communication: A Reader/ Eds. Samovar and Porter. & # 8211 ; 4th erectile dysfunction. & # 8211 ; Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, 1985. & # 8211 ; P. 31-36.

35.Plato
. Republic, Book V, quoted in Women in Western Thought. & # 8211 ; Ed. Martha LeeOsborne
. & # 8211 ; New York: Random House, 1979. & # 8211 ; P. 15-16

36.Porter
, Richard andSamovar
, Larry. “ Approaching Intercultural Communication, ” // Intercultural Communication: A Reader/ Eds. Samovar and Porter. & # 8211 ; 4th erectile dysfunction. & # 8211 ; Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, 1985. & # 8211 ; P. 20-29.

37.Potkay
, C. , & A ;Potkay
, C. Perceptions of female and male amusing strip characters: II Favorability and designation and different dimensions. Sexual activity Roles, 1984, 10. & # 8211 ; P. 119-128.

38.Rak
, D. , & A ;McCullen
, M. Sex function pigeonholing in telecasting commercials: A verbal response manner and content-analysis. Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science, 1987, 19. & # 8211 ; P. 25-39.

39.Schwindt
, David. Searching for the New Boy. & # 8211 ; hypertext transfer protocol: //www.fortunecity.com/meltingpot/kamimura/130/thesis

40. Sex-Role Pigeonholing in Television Commercials: A Review and Comparison of Fourteen Studies Done on Five Continents Over 25 Old ages. & # 8211 ; hypertext transfer protocol: //www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m2294/is_1999_Sept/ai_58469478/pg_1

41.Tannen
, Deborah. You Merely Do n’t Understand: Womans and Men in Communication. & # 8211 ; New York: William Morrow, 1990. & # 8211 ; P. 42.

42.Tavris
, Carol andWade
, Carol. The Longest War: Sexual activity Differences in Perspective. & # 8211 ; San Diego: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1984. & # 8211 ; P. 14.

43.Weitzman
, L. , Eiffer, D. ,Hokada
, E. , & A ;Ross
, C. Sex-role socialisation in image books for preschool kids. American Journal of Sociology, 1972, 77. & # 8211 ; P. 1125-1150.

44.Wolf
, Naomi. The Beauty Myth. & # 8211 ; New York: William Morrow, 1991.

45.Wood
, Julia T. Gendered Lives: Communication, Gender, and Culture. & # 8211 ; Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, 1994. & # 8211 ; P. 141-162.

Plants Consulted Works Consulted

1. Barkley, R. A. , Ullman, D. G. , Otto, L. , & A ; Brecht, J. M. The effects of sex typewriting and sex rightness of modelled behaviour on kids ‘s imitation. Child Development, 1977, 48. & # 8212 ; P. 721-725.

2. Bretl, D. J. , & A ; Cantor, J. The portraiture of work forces and adult females in U.S. telecasting commercials: A recent content analysis and tendencies over 15 old ages. Sexual activity Roles, 1988, 18. & # 8212 ; P. 595-609.

3. Bretl, D. , & A ; Cantor, J. The portraiture of work forces and adult females in US telecasting commercials: A recent content analysis and tendencies over 15 old ages. Sexual activity Roles, 1988, 18. & # 8212 ; P. 595-609.

4. Carstarphen, Meta G. and Susan C. Zaviona, eds. , Sexual Rhetoric: Media Perspectives on Sexuality, Gender, and Identity. & # 8211 ; Greenwood Press, 1999.

5. Courtney, A. E. , & A ; Whipple, T. W Sex pigeonholing in advertisement. Lexington, MA: D. C. Heath, 1983.

6. Craig, R. The consequence of telecasting ‘s day-to-day portion in gender portraitures in telecasting commercials: A content analysis. Sexual activity Roles, 1992, 26. & # 8212 ; P, 197-211.

7. Durkin, K. Television and sex functions acquisition: 1. Context. British Journal of Social Psychology, 1985, 24. & # 8212 ; P. 101-113.

8. Fay, Elizabeth. Eminent Rhetoric: Language, Gender, and Cultural Tropes, 1987. & # 8211 ; Bergin and Garvey Press, 1994.

9. Ferrante, C. , Hayes, A. , & A ; Kingsley, S. Image of adult females in telecasting advertisement. Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic Media, 1988, 32. & # 8212 ; P. 231-237.

10. Frueh, T. , & A ; McGhee, P. E. Traditional sex-role development and sum of clip spent watching telecasting. Developmental Psychology, 1975, 11. & # 8212 ; P. 109-114.

11. Furnham, A. , & A ; Bitar, N, The stereotypic portraiture of work forces and adult females in British telecasting advertizements. Sexual activity Roles, 1993, 29. & # 8212 ; P. 297-310.

12. Furnham, A. , & A ; Mak, T. Sex-role stereotyping in telecasting commercials: A reappraisal and comparing of 12 surveies done on five continents, 1998.

13. Furnham, A. , & A ; Voli, V. Gender pigeonholing in Italian telecasting advertizements. Journal of Broadcasting and Electric Media, 1989, 33. & # 8212 ; P. 175-185.

14. Gerbner, G. The kineticss of cultural opposition. In G. Tuchman, A. K. Daniels, & A ; J. Benet ( Eds. ) , Heart and place: Images of adult females in the mass media. & # 8211 ; New York: Oxford University Press, 1978.

15. Gunter, B. Attitudes to airing in 1984. London: Independent Broadcasting Authority, 1985.

16. Harris, P. R. , & A ; Stobart, J. Sex function pigeonholing in British telecasting advertizements at different times of the twenty-four hours: An extension and polish of Manstead and McCulloch ( 1981 ) . & # 8211 ; British Journal of Social Psychology, 1986, 25. & # 8212 ; P. 155-164.

17. Harris, P. , & A ; Stobart, J. Sex-role stereotypes in British telecasting advertizements at different times of the twenty-four hours. British Journal of Social Psychology, 1986, 25. & # 8212 ; P. 155-164.

18. Hunter, Dianne. ed. , Seduction Theory: Readings of Gender, Representation, and Rhetoric. & # 8211 ; University of Illinois Press, 1989.

19. IBA. Attitudes to airing in 1984. London: Independent Broadcasting Authority, 1985.

20. Jennings, J. , Geis, E L. , & A ; Brown, V. Influence of telecasting commercials on adult females ‘s assurance and independent opinion. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1980, 38. & # 8212 ; P. 203-210.

21. Kassarjian, H. H. Content analysis in consumer research. Journal of Consumer Research, 1977, 4. & # 8212 ; P. 8-18.

22. Lovdal, L. Sex-role messages in telecasting commercials: An update. Sexual activity Roles, 1989, 21. & # 8212 ; P. 715-725.

23. Lunsford, Andrea, ed. , Reclaiming Rhetorica: Womans in the Rhetorical Tradition. & # 8211 ; University of Pittsburgh, 1995.

24. George gilbert aime murphy, J. R, Rubenstein, E. A. , & A ; Comstock, G. A. Television and societal behaviour, Vol 12. Television and societal acquisition. Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1972.

25. Ritchie, Joy and Kate Ronald, eds. , Available Means: An Anthology of Women & # 8217 ; s Rhetoric ( s ) . & # 8211 ; University of Pittsburgh Press, 2001.

[ 1 ]
Furnham
, Adrian. Gender function pigeonholing in advertizements on two British wireless Stationss. & # 8211 ; hypertext transfer protocol: //www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m2294/is_1_40/ai_54250825/print

[ 2 ]
Porter
, Richard andSamovar
, Larry. “ Approaching Intercultural Communication, ” // Intercultural Communication: A Reader/ Eds. Samovar and Porter. & # 8211 ; 4th erectile dysfunction. & # 8211 ; Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, 1985. & # 8211 ; P. 20-29.

[ 3 ]
Penington
, Dorothy L. “ Intercultural Communication, ” // Intercultural Communication: A Reader/ Eds. Samovar and Porter. & # 8211 ; 4th erectile dysfunction. & # 8211 ; Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, 1985. & # 8211 ; P. 31-36.

[ 4 ]
Plato
. Republic, Book V, quoted in Women in Western Thought. & # 8211 ; Ed. Martha LeeOsborne
. & # 8211 ; New York: Random House, 1979. & # 8211 ; P. 15-16 ;Aristotle
. Metaphysicss. Quoted inMiles
, Rosalind. The Women ‘s History of the World. & # 8211 ; Topsfield, MA: Salem House, 1989. & # 8211 ; P. 57 ;Aquinas.
Summa Theologica. & # 8211 ; Quoted in Women in Western Thought. & # 8211 ; Ed. Martha LeeOsborne
. & # 8211 ; New York: Random House, 1979. & # 8211 ; P. 68 ;Tavris
, Carol andWade
, Carol. The Longest War: Sexual activity Differences in Perspective. & # 8211 ; San Diego: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1984. & # 8211 ; P. 14 ; Excerpt fromFreud ‘s
missive to Martha Bernays, quoted inMiles
, Rosalind. The Women ‘s History of the World. & # 8211 ; Topsfield, MA: Salem House, 1989. & # 8211 ; P. 222.

[ 5 ]
Wolf
, Naomi. The Beauty Myth. & # 8211 ; New York: William Morrow, 1991.

[ 6 ]
Wood
, Julia T. Gendered Lives: Communication, Gender, and Culture. & # 8211 ; Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, 1994. & # 8211 ; P. 160-162.

[ 7 ]
Courtney
, A. E. , & A ;Whipple
, T W. Women in Television commercials. Journal of Communication, 1974, 24, & # 8211 ; P. 110-118 ;Culley
, J. , & A ;Bennett
, R. Selling adult females, selling inkinesss. Journal of Communication, 1976, 26. & # 8211 ; P. 160-174 ;Dominique
, J. R. , & A ;Rausch
, G. E. The image of adult females in web Television commercials. Journal of Broadcasting, 1972, 16. & # 8211 ; P. 259-265 ;Furnham
, A. ,Abramsky
, S. , & A ;Gunter
, B. A cross-cultural content analysis of kids ‘s telecasting advertizements. Sexual activity Roles, 1997, 37. & # 8211 ; P. 91-99 ;Furnham
, A. , & A ;Skae
, E. Changes in the stereotyped portraiture of work forces and adult females in British telecasting advertizements. European Psychologist, 1997, 2. & # 8211 ; P. 44-51 ;Kolbe
, R. , & A ;Langefeld
, C. Appraising gender function portraitures in Television commercials. Sexual activity Roles, 1993, 28. & # 8211 ; P. 393-417 ;O’Donnell
, W. J. , & A ;O’Donnell
, K. J. Update: Sexual activity function messages in Television commercials. Journal of Communication, 1978, 28. & # 8211 ; P. 156-158.

[ 8 ]
Lobban
, G. Sex functions in reading strategies. Educational Review, 1975, 27. & # 8211 ; P. 202-210.

[ 9 ]
Weitzman
, L. , Eiffer, D. ,Hokada
, E. , & A ;Ross
, C. Sex-role socialisation in image books for preschool kids. American Journal of Sociology, 1972, 77. & # 8211 ; P. 1125-1150.

[ 10 ]
Potkay
, C. , & A ;Potkay
, C. Perceptions of female and male amusing strip characters: II Favorability and designation and different dimensions. Sexual activity Roles, 1984, 10. & # 8211 ; P. 119-128.

[ 11 ]
Furnham
, Adrian. Gender function pigeonholing in advertizements on two British wireless Stationss. & # 8211 ; hypertext transfer protocol: //www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m2294/is_1_40/ai_54250825/print

[ 12 ]
Craig
, R. Stephen. The Consequence of Television Day Part on Gender Portrayals in Television Commercials: A Contented Analysis, in Sex Roles 26 ( 5/6 ) , 1992. & # 8211 ; P, 197-211. & # 8211 ; hypertext transfer protocol: //www.aber.ac.uk/media/Students/lmg9309.html

[ 13 ]
Neto
, Felix andPinto
, Isabel.Gender
stereotypes in Lusitanian telecasting advertizements.
In Sexual activity Functions: A Journal of Research, July, 1998. & # 8211 ; P. 45-46. & # 8211 ; hypertext transfer protocol: //www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m2294/is_n1-2_v39/ai_21136467

[ 14 ]
Bandura
, A. Social larning theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1977.

[ 15 ]
McArthur
, L. Z. , & A ;Resko
, B. G. The portraiture of work forces and adult females in American telecasting commercials. Journal of Social Psychology, 1975, 97. & # 8211 ; P. 209-220.

[ 16 ]
Schwindt
, David.
Searching for the New Boy
. & # 8211 ; hypertext transfer protocol: //www.fortunecity.com/meltingpot/kamimura/130/thesis

[ 17 ]
Manstead
, A. S. R. , & A ;McCulloch
, C. Sex-role pigeonholing in British telecasting advertizements. In British Journal of Social Psychology, 1981, 20. & # 8211 ; P. 171-180.

[ 18 ]
Mazzella
, C. ,Durkin
, K. ,Cerini
, E. , & A ;Buralli
, P. Sex-role pigeonholing in Australian-television advertizements, Sex Roles, 1992, 26. & # 8211 ; P. 243-259.

[ 19 ]
Mwangi
, M. Gender roles portrayed in Kenyan telecasting commercials. Sexual activity Roles, 1996, 34. & # 8211 ; P. 205-214.

[ 20 ]
Gilly
, M. Sex functions in advertisement: A comparing of telecasting advertizements in Australia, Mexico and the United States. Journal of Marketing, 1988, 4. & # 8211 ; P. 75-85 ;Kolbe
, R. , & A ;Langefeld
, C. Appraising gender function portraitures in Television commercials. Sexual activity Roles, 1993, 28. & # 8211 ; P. 393-417.

[ 21 ]
Rak
, D. , & A ;McCullen
, M. Sex function pigeonholing in telecasting commercials: A verbal response manner and content-analysis. Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science, 1987, 19. & # 8211 ; P. 25-39.

[ 22 ]
Furnham
, A. , & A ;Voli
, V. Gender stereotypes in Italian telecasting advertizements. Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic Media, 1989, 33. & # 8211 ; P. 175-185.

[ 23 ]
Furnham
, A. , & A ;Bitar
, N. The stereotypic portraiture of work forces and adult females in British telecasting advertizements. Sexual activity Roles, 1993, 29. & # 8211 ; P. 297-310 ;Furnham
, A. , & A ;Skae
, E. Changes in the stereotyped portraiture of work forces and adult females in British telecasting advertizements. European Psychologist, 1997, 2. & # 8211 ; P. 44-51.

[ 24 ]
Neto
, Felix andPinto
, Isabel.Gender
stereotypes in Lusitanian telecasting advertizements.
In Sexual activity Functions: A Journal of Research, July, 1998. & # 8211 ; hypertext transfer protocol: //www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m2294/is_n1-2_v39/ai_21136467

[ 25 ]
Gilly
, M. Gender functions in advertisement: A comparing of telecasting advertizements in Australia, Mexico, and the United States. In Journal of Marketing, 1988, 52. & # 8211 ; P. 75-85 ;Mazzella
, C. ,Durkin
, K. ,Cerini
, E. , & A ;Buralli
, P. Sex-role stereotyping in Australian telecasting advertizements. In Sexual activity Roles, 1992, 26. & # 8211 ; P. 243-259.

[ 26 ]
Furnham
, Adrian. Gender function pigeonholing in advertizements on two British wireless Stationss. & # 8211 ; hypertext transfer protocol: //www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m2294/is_1_40/ai_54250825/print

[ 27 ]
Furnham
, A. , & A ;Schofield
, S. Sex function pigeonholing in British wireless advertizements. British Journal of Social Psychology, 1986, 25. & # 8211 ; P. 165-171.

[ 28 ]
Hurtz
, W. , & A ;Durkin
, K. Gender function pigeonholing in Australian wireless commercials. Sexual activity Roles, 1997, 36. & # 8211 ; P. 103-114.

[ 29 ]
Furnham
, Adrian. Gender function pigeonholing in advertizements on two British wireless Stationss. & # 8211 ; hypertext transfer protocol: //www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m2294/is_1_40/ai_54250825/print

[ 30 ]
Craig
, R. Stephen. The Consequence of Television Day Part on Gender Portrayals in Television Commercials: A Contented Analysis, in Sex Roles 26 ( 5/6 ) , 1992. & # 8211 ; P, 197-211. & # 8211 ; hypertext transfer protocol: //www.aber.ac.uk/media/Students/lmg9309.html

[ 31 ]
Mulvaney
, Becky Michele. Gender Differences in Communication: An Intercultural Experience. & # 8211 ; Copyright 1994 by Becky Mulvaney: & lt ; hypertext transfer protocol: //feminism.eserver.org/gender-differences.txt & gt ; ; See besidesLakoff
, Robin. Language and Women ‘s Place. & # 8211 ; New York: Harper & A ; Row, 1975 ;Arliss
, Laurie P. Gender Communication. & # 8211 ; Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1991. & # 8211 ; P. 12-26.

[ 32 ]
Arliss
, Laurie P. Gender Communication. & # 8211 ; Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1991. & # 8211 ; P. 32-33.

[ 32 ]
Gilligan
, Carol. In a Different Voice: Psychological Theory and Women ‘s Development. & # 8211 ; Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press, 1982.

[ 33 ]
Quoted inJohnson
, Fern. As seen on Television: Take Care of Me Twins vs Electronic Karate Fighters. & # 8211 ; hypertext transfer protocol: //www.clarku.edu/activelearning/departments/english/johnson/johnsonD.cfm

[ 35 ]
Tannen
, Deborah. You Merely Do n’t Understand: Womans and Men in Communication. & # 8211 ; New York: William Morrow, 1990. & # 8211 ; P. 42.

[ 36 ]
Wood
, Julia T. Gendered Lives: Communication, Gender, and Culture. & # 8211 ; Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, 1994. & # 8211 ; P. 141-143.

[ 38 ]
McArthur
, L. Z. , & A ;Resko
, B. G. The portraiture of work forces and adult females in American telecasting commercials. Journal of Social Psychology, 1975, 97. & # 8211 ; P. 209-220.

[ 39 ]
Johnson
, Fern
. As seen on Television: Take Care of Me Twins vs Electronic Karate Fighters. & # 8211 ; hypertext transfer protocol: //www.clarku.edu/activelearning/departments/english/johnson/johnsonD.cfm

[ 40 ]
Levingstone
, S. , & A ;Green
, G. Television advertizements and the portraiture of gender. In British Journal of Social Psychology, 1986, 25. & # 8211 ; P. 149-154.

[ 41 ]
Quoted inJohnson
, Fern. As seen on Television: Take Care of Me Twins vs Electronic Karate Fighters. & # 8211 ; hypertext transfer protocol: //www.clarku.edu/activelearning/departments/english/johnson/johnsonD.cfm

[ 42 ]
Furnham
, Adrian. Gender function pigeonholing in advertizements on two British wireless Stationss. & # 8211 ; hypertext transfer protocol: //www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m2294/is_1_40/ai_54250825/print

[ 43 ]
McArthur
, L. Z. , & A ;Resko
, B. G. The portraiture of work forces and adult females in American telecasting commercials. In Journal of Social Psychology, 1975, 97. & # 8211 ; P. 209-220.

[ 44 ]
Sex-Role Stereotyping in Television Commercials: A Review and Comparison of Fourteen Studies Done on Five Continents Over 25 Old ages
. & # 8211 ; hypertext transfer protocol: //www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m2294/is_1999_Sept/ai_58469478/pg_1