Cell Biology Study Guide Essay Sample
List the cardinal commonalities and differences between procaryotic and eucaryotic cells. Prokaryotic – no cell organs ; no karyon ; bacteriums and Achaea ; spherical. rodlike/corkscrew-shaped ; cell wall ; Eukaryotic – has nucleus ; has cell organs
Commonalties – contain Deoxyribonucleic acid that shops familial information
What is the chief constituent of cellular membranes? What map ( s ) do membranes function in cells? Made of phospholipids ; defines volume of cell ; isolates the cell from environment ; Motility/Morphology ; Signal acknowledgment and transduction ; conveyance of little molecules and some ions
Sum up the cardinal constructions and maps of the undermentioned cell organs: nucleus-double membrane ( atomic envelope ) ; outer membrane uninterrupted with the ER ; DNA synthesis and fix ; written text ; ribosome synthesis endoplasmic Reticulum ( unsmooth and smooth ) -largest sum of membrane ; RER-studded with ribosomes ; synthesis of membrane edge and exported proteins ; SER-synthesis of lipoids and steroid endocrines ; Ca signaling ; detoxification reactions
Golgi apparatus-series of membrane tonss ; processing and sorting of proteins to cellular compartments including export Lysosomes-single membrane ; interior is pH 5 ; cellular digestion: autophagy Peroxisomes-small and spherical ; long concatenation fatty acerb oxidization ; lipid oxidization ; O2 and H2O2 based reactions Mitochondria-ETC ; coevals of ATP ; oxidization of pyruvate. fatty acids. aminic acids ; programmed cell death ; incorporate ain DNA and reproduce spliting in two Chloroplasts – gaining control energy from sunshine ; found in workss and algae ;
Know size ranges for the cell and its constituents. Be able to change over between units of step. 1m=103 mm=106µm =109 nanometer
What are the maps of the cytoskeleton? Name the different types of cytoskeletal fibres. Cell motility. cell form. cellular organisation ; microtubules. actin. intermediate fibrils
What is meant by the term ‘model organism’ ? List the common theoretical account beings ( described in book but non in category ) . Model being – an being selected for intensive survey as a representative of a big group of species. Examples are the mouse ( stand foring mammals ) . the barm Saccharomyces cerevisiae ( stand foring a unicellular eucaryote ) . and E coli ( stand foring bacteriums ) . the fruit fly Drosophilia melanogaster. and Arabidopsis thaliana ( stand foring workss )
Chapter 2
Which 4 elements make up the bulk of atomic composing found in populating things? Hydrogen. Carbon. Oxygen. Nitrogen
Describe the 3 chief subatomic atoms ( specify their function in atomic construction ) . Protons – positively charged. determines atomic figure ; Electrons – negatively charged ; Neutrons – impersonal. uncharged. same mass as protons. structural stableness of the karyon
Explain covalent and ionic bonding. Give an illustration of each. Covalent bond – molecules formed when two atoms portion a brace of negatrons ; e. g. H2 ; Ionic bond – transportation of negatrons. negatrons are donated by one atom to another. electrostatic attractive force ( an attractive force that occurs between oppositely charge atoms ; e. g. NaCl
Explain the construct of mutual opposition – usage H2O as an illustration. The positive charge is concentrated toward one terminal of the molecule ( the positive pole ) and the negative charge is concentrated toward the other terminal ( the negative pole )
Explain the footings hydrophilic and hydrophobic. Be able to sort molecules as one. the other. or both ( fatty acids/lipids ) . based on their constructions. Hydrophilic – H2O loving. fade out in H2O. incorporate positive or negative charges ( ions ) : sugars. Deoxyribonucleic acid. RNA. and bulk of proteins. carboxyl caput group Hydrophobic – H2O fearing ; uncharged and form few or no H bonds. do non fade out in H2O: hydrocarbons
How many covalent bonds do the atoms C. H. O. and nitrogen normally organize? Carbon – 4 ; H – 1 ; O – 2 ; N – 3
Be able to place the undermentioned chemical functional groups: hydroxyl group -OH. carboxyl group -COOH. methyl group –CH3. carbonyl group –C=O. amino group –NH2 and phosphate group –PO32- .
What types of larger molecules are made from sugars ( monosaccharoses ) ? What maps do monosaccharoses and their derived functions serve in cells? Carbohydrates= & gt ; oligosaccharides= & gt ; polysaccarharides Functions: production and storage of energy ; cell walls ( cellulose. chitin ) ; extracellular matrix ; DNA/RNA ; linked to proteins
Describe the basic construction of a fatty acid. How are phospholipids constructed from fatty acids? List some maps of fatty acid. Two chemically distinguishable parts: long hydrocarbon concatenation and carboxyl caput group ; Saturated – no dual bonds. solid oleo ; Unsaturated – one or more dual bonds. liquid/soft oleo ( oil ) Phospholipid – the glycerin is joined to two fatty acid ironss and phosphate group. which is linked to a hydrophilic caput Function: production and storage of energy. cell membrane. cell signaling
Draw and depict the basic construction of an amino acid. What determines the chemical belongingss of an amino acid? Be able to sort the 20 amino acids into the 4 households specified in the book ( acidic. basic. uncharged polar. nonionic ) . Structure: carboxylic acid group ( COO- ) and aminic group ( NH3+ ) . both linked to same C atom ; Side chains confer functionality
Acidic: Asp. Glu
Basic: Arg. Lys. His
Uncharged Polar: Asn. Gln. Ser. Thr. Tyr
Nonpolar: Ala. Gly. Val. Leu. Ile. Pro. Phe. Met. Trp. Cys
What are the constituents that make up the construction of a base. What are the 2 differences between the ribonucleotides and deoxyribonucleotides? What is the difference between a base and nucleoside? Nucleotide – N ring. sugar. phosphate group Ribonucleotides – nucleotide incorporating ribose ; A. G. U. T Deoxyribonucleotides – nucleotide incorporating deoxyribose ; A. G. C. T Nucleoside = nucleotide – phosphate
What are some maps of bases in cells? Deoxyribonucleic acid. RNA. Carriers of chemical energy ( ATP ) . signaling molecules. coenzymes ( ATP. Coenzyme A. NAD+ . FAD )
What common reaction is used in the synthesis of larger biomolecules? Know the 4 chief edifice blocks and the larger units that are made inside the cell. Condensation ; Sugars= & gt ; polyoses ; fatty acids= & gt ; fats. lipoids. membranes ; amino acids= & gt ; proteins ; nuclotides= & gt ; nucleic acids
List and explicate the 4 types of noncovalent weak chemical interactions happening in cells. How do they find the conformation of a supermolecule? Conformations are extremely constrained because of weaker noncovalent bonds that form between different parts of the molecule ; determined by the additive sequence of monomers in its concatenation Electrostatic/ionic attractive forces – weak in H2O ; transportation of negatrons Hydrogen bonds – bond when a H ( + ) is sandwiched between two negatron pulling ions ( – ) ; holds the two strands of DNA dual spiral together ; e. g. aminic acids in polypeptide ironss Van der Waals attractive forces – a signifier of electrical attractive force caused by fluctuating electric charges that arise whenever two atoms come within a really short distance of each other Hydrophobic interaction – forces phospholipid molecules together in cell membranes. gives most proteins a ball-shaped form ; to minimise interaction with H2O or hydrophilic environment
Order from strongest to weakest: covalent= & gt ; ionic= & gt ; hydrogen= & gt ; van der Waals
Chapter 3
State the 2nd jurisprudence of thermodynamics and its relevancy to the cell. In any system. the grade of upset ( information ) will increase over clip. The increased order maintained within the cell generates increased upset ( heat ) that is released out of the cell
Explain the footings metamorphosis. katabolism. and constructive metabolism. Metabolism – the sum sum of all the chemical reactions it needs to transport out to last. turn. and reproduce Catabolism – interrupt down groceries into smaller molecules. thereby bring forthing both a utile signifier of energy for the cell and some of the little molecules that the cell needs as edifice blocks Anabolism – use the energy harnessed by katabolism to drive the synthesis of the many molecules that form the cell
Contrast energetically favourable and unfavourable reactions with respect to:
•change in free energy ( ?G )
•absorption/release of energy
•spontaneity
Energetically favourable – create upset by diminishing the free energy of the system to which they belong ; negative ?G ; self-generated ; release of free energy into environment
Energetically unfavourable – by themselves created order in the existence ; positive ?G ; nonspontaneous ; can merely take topographic point if coupled with a negative ?G so big that the net ?G of the full reaction is negative ; additions free energy into system
Define alteration in free energy based on heat content and information. ?G = ?H – T ?S. where ?H is change in figure of bond formed and/or broken and ?S is the alteration in entropy
What two things does ?G ( that is. GB ? GA ) tell you about the reaction A > B? Explain what it means if 1 ) GA is greater GB. 2 ) if GA is less than GB. and 3 ) if GA is equal to GB. 1 ) ?G is negative. self-generated. energetically favourable. ratio of A? B increases ; 2 ) ?G is positive. nonspontaneous. energetically unfavourable ; 3 ) the reaction is at equilibrium A-B
Based on the equation ?G = ?G0 + 0. 616 ln ( [ B ] / [ A ] ) from talk. what 2 factors determine whether a given reaction will happen ( i. e. . what determines ?G ) ? Substrates and merchandises What is the difference between ?G and ?G° . and what does their correlativity depend on? ?G is the free energy IN THE CELL ; ?G° is the standard free energy IN THE TEST TUBE ; correlativity depends on the concentration of substrate and merchandise in the Cell
Give the equation for the equilibrium invariable ( Keq ) for a reaction A > B. What does this value state you about ?G0? ( This reply may be expressed mathematically. ) K = [ B ] / [ A ] ?G = -1. 42 log10K
K = 10-?G°/1. 42
What is the name of the energy barrier that must be overcome for a chemical reaction to happen? Explain how an enzyme Acts of the Apostless as a accelerator to get the better of the barrier. Activation energy ; enzymes lower the activation energy for catalyzed reaction Y?X ( reactant?product ) ; it DECREASES the ACTIVATION ENERGY by conveying the substrate into a favourable conformation with the enzyme ; can besides undergo energetic alterations that provide some of the energy needed by the reaction
What is the active site of an enzyme and what does it make? In what manner does an enzyme affect the equilibrium of a chemical reaction? Active site – a specialised part of an enzyme surface to which a substrate molecule binds before it undergoes a catalyzed reaction
Describe the construct of matching whereby unfavourable reactions can be accomplished in cells ; explicate how the ‘favorability’ of each mechanism can be mathematically determined. Matching – an energetically favourable reaction is used to drive an energetically unfavourable one that produces an activated bearer molecule or some other utile molecule ; necessitate enzymes
Explain what happens in a typical oxidization reaction in the cell utilizing NAD+ ( or NADP+ ) as an illustration. Oxidation – remotion of negatrons ( lose a H atom ) NAD+ and NADP+ are utilized as negatron acceptors ( electron bearers ) ; picks up “packet of energy” in signifier of two high-energy negatrons plus a proton ( H+ ) going NADH and NADPH ; the substrate is oxidized and the NAD+ and NADP+ is reduced. The hydride ion carried by NADPH is given up readily in a subsequent oxidoreduction reaction. because the ring can accomplish a more stable agreement of negatrons without it ; regenerates NADP+ . the NADPH becomes oxidized and the substrate becomes reduced—thus finishing the NADPH rhythm.
Sum up the cellular functions of NAD+ . FAD. and NADP+ .
Plenty of NAD+ to move as oxidising agents and plentifulness of NADPH to move as cut downing agents ; NAD+ required function for katabolism ; NADPH required function for constructive metabolism
NADH and FADH2 transfer negatrons to the negatron conveyance concatenation enzymes in the chondriosome
Sum up how ATP can be used to drive an unfavourable reaction by phosphoryl transportation potency. The energetically favourable reaction of ATP hydrolysis is COUPLED to many otherwise unfavourable reactions through which other molecules are synthesized. Such hydrolysis reactions frequently involve the transportation of the terminal phosphate in ATP to another molecule.
ATP gives up energy package in energetically favourable hydrolysis to ADP and inorganic phosphate. The regenerated ADP is so available to be used for another unit of ammunition of the phosphorylation reaction that forms ATP. making an ATP rhythm in the cell.
Explain the map of coenzymes. utilizing coenzyme A as an illustration. Coenzymes are little molecules which bring alone chemical functionality to certain enzyme reactions. Coenzyme A can transport an acetyl group in a readily movable linkage ; makes an activated molecule called ethanoyl group CoA and used to add two-carbon units in the biogenesis of the hydrocarbon dress suits of fatty acids ; carries 2-24 C units ; terminal thioester group is a reactive site
