Types of borrowings

Contemporary English is a alone mixture of Germanic & A ; Romanic elements. This commixture has resulted in the international character of the vocabulary. In the comparing with other linguistic communications English possesses great profusion of vocabulary.

All linguistic communications are mixtures to a greater or lesser extent, but the present twenty-four hours English vocabulary is alone in this regard.

A brief expression on assorted historical strata of the English vocabulary:

1 ) Through cultural contacts with Romans partially already on the continent and all through the influence of Christianity a really early stratum of Latin-Greek words entered the linguistic communication.

Their beginning is no longer felt by the normal talker today in such word: lb, batch, mustard, school, dish, mentum, churchman, cheese, Satan, Piper nigrum, street, Gospel, and bishop.

The same can be said about some Norse words ( from about the tenth century ) that today belong to the cardinal nucleus of the vocabulary.

It means that their frequence is really high.

They, their, them, sky, tegument, accomplishment, skirt, ailment, dies, take…

They partially supersede the figure of OE words

OE

& # 183 ; heofon & # 8211 ; heaven ( sky )

& # 183 ; Niman & # 8211 ; take

& # 183 ; Steorfan & # 8211 ; decease

A more extremist alteration & A ; profound influence on the English vocabulary occurred on 1066 ( Norman Conquest ) . Until the 15th cent. , a great figure of Gallic words were adopted. They belong to the countries of tribunal, church, jurisprudence, and province.

Virtue, faith, parliament, justness, baronial, beauty, preach, honor…

The inflow of the words was the strongest up to the fifteenth cent. , but continued up to the seventeenth cent.

Many Gallic adoptions retained their original pronunciation & A ; emphasis

& # 183 ; Champagne, concert dance, machine, garage…

& # 183 ; Separate, attitude, constitute, introduce…

Adjectives in English & # 8211 ; chesty, of import, patient

Sometimes with their derived functions:

& # 183 ; Demonstrative & # 8211 ; presentation

& # 183 ; Separate & # 8211 ; separation

17-18 milliliter. due to the establishing of cultural, trade dealingss many words were borrowed from Italian, Spanish, Dutch, French.

Italian: libretto, fiddle, opera

Spanish: hurricane, tomato, baccy

Dutch: yacht, Canis familiaris, landscape

Gallic: corsage, counter

From the point of position of their etymology formal words are usually of classical Romanic beginning, informal & # 8211 ; Anglo-Saxon.

Nowadays many Americanisms become familiar due to the addition of transatlantic travel & A ; the influence of broadcast media.

Even in London ( Heathrow airdrome ) & # 8220 ; luggage & # 8221 ; alternatively of & # 8220 ; baggage & # 8221 ;

The present twenty-four hours English vocabulary is from being homogenous.

Borrowing & # 8211 ; 1 ) ( procedure ) fall backing to the word-stock of other linguistic communications for words to show new constructs, to further distinguish the bing constructs and to call new objects, etc. ; 2 ) ( consequence ) a loan word, borrowed word & # 8211 ; a word taken over from another linguistic communication and modified in phonemic form, spelling, paradigm or intending harmonizing to the criterions of the English linguistic communication. & # 8211 ; See Assimilation, Source of adoption, Origin of borrowing. The undermentioned types of adoptions can be distinguished:

& # 183 ; – loan words proper & # 8211 ; words borrowed from another linguistic communication and assimilated to this or that extent ;

& # 183 ; – loan interlingual rendition & # 8211 ; 1 ) ( procedure ) adoption by agencies of literally interpreting words ( usu. one portion after another ) or word combinations, by patterning words after foreign forms ; 2 ) ( consequence ) interlingual rendition loans ( loan translations ) & # 8211 ; words and looks formed from the stuff already bing in the English linguistic communication but harmonizing to forms taken from another linguistic communication by manner of actual word-for-word or morpheme-for-morpheme interlingual rendition: e.g. concatenation tobacco user: :Germ Kettenraucher ; goes without stating: :Fr. Virginia sans dire ; acme conference: : Germ. Gipfel Konferenz, Fr. conf & # 233 ; rence gold sommet ;

– semantic borrowings/loans & # 8211 ; the term is used to denote the development in an English word of a new significance due to the influence of a related word in another linguistic communication ( e.g. policy ) . – semantic borrowings/loans – the term is used to denote the development in an English word of a new significance due to the influence of a related word in another linguistic communication ( e.g. policy ) .

Categorization OF BORROWINGS ACCORDING TO THE BORROWED ASPECT

There are the undermentioned groups: phonic adoptions, interlingual rendition loans, semantic adoptions, and morphemic adoptions.

Phonetic adoptions are most characteristic in all linguistic communications ; they are called loan words proper. Wordss are borrowed with their spelling, pronunciation and significance. Then they undergo assimilation, each sound in the borrowed word is substituted by the corresponding sound of the adoption linguistic communication. In some instances the spelling is changed. The construction of the word can besides be changed. The place of the emphasis is really frequently influenced by the phonic system of the adoption linguistic communication. The paradigm of the word, and sometimes the significance of the borrowed word are besides changed. Such words as: labor, travel, table, chair, people are phonic adoptions from Gallic ; apparatchik, nomenklatura, sputnik are phonic adoptions from Russian ; bank, soprano, couple are phonic adoptions from Italian etc.

Translation loans are word-for-word ( or morpheme-for-morpheme ) interlingual renditions of some foreign words or looks. In such instances the impression is borrowed from a foreign linguistic communication but it is expressed by native lexical units, & # 171 ; to take the bull by the horns & # 187 ; ( Latin ) , & # 171 ; just sex & # 187 ; ( Gallic ) , & # 171 ; populating infinite & # 187 ; ( German ) etc. Some interlingual rendition loans appeared in English from Latin already in the Old English period, e.g. Sunday ( solis dies ) . There are translation loans from the linguistic communications of Indians, such as: & # 171 ; pipe of peace & # 187 ; , & # 171 ; pale-faced & # 187 ; , from German & # 171 ; masterpiece & # 187 ; , & # 171 ; homesickness & # 187 ; , & # 171 ; demigod & # 187 ; .

Semantic adoptions are such units when a new significance of the unit bing in the linguistic communication is borrowed. It can go on when we have two comparative linguistic communications which have common words with different significances, e.g. there are semantic adoptions between Scandinavian and English, such as the significance & # 171 ; to populate & # 187 ; for the word & # 171 ; to brood & # 8217 ; which in Old English had the significance & # 171 ; to roll & # 187 ; . Or else the significance & # 171 ; & # 1076 ; & # 1072 ; & # 1088 ; & # 187 ; , & # 171 ; & # 1087 ; & # 1086 ; & # 1076 ; & # 1072 ; & # 1088 ; & # 1086 ; & # 1082 ; & # 187 ; for the word & # 171 ; gift & # 187 ; which in Old English had the significance & # 171 ; & # 1074 ; & # 1099 ; & # 1082 ; & # 1091 ; & # 1087 ; & # 1079 ; & # 1072 ; & # 1078 ; & # 1077 ; & # 1085 ; & # 1091 ; & # 187 ; .

Semantic adoption can look when an English word was borrowed into some other linguistic communication, developed there a new significance and this new significance was borrowed back into English, e.g. & # 171 ; brigade & # 187 ; was borrowed into Russian and formed the significance & # 171 ; a working corporate & # 171 ; , & # 187 ; & # 1073 ; & # 1088 ; & # 1080 ; & # 1075 ; & # 1072 ; & # 1076 ; & # 1072 ; & # 187 ; . This significance was borrowed back into English as a Russian adoption. The same is true of the English word & # 171 ; innovator & # 187 ; .

Morphemic adoptions are adoptions of affixes which occur in the linguistic communication when many words with indistinguishable affixes are borrowed from one linguistic communication into another, so that the morphemic construction of borrowed words becomes familiar to the people talking the adoption linguistic communication, e.g. we can happen a batch of Romanic affixes in the English word-building system, that is why there are a batch of words – loanblends in English where different morphemes have different beginning, e.g. & # 171 ; goddess & # 187 ; , & # 171 ; beautiful & # 187 ; etc.

1.5 CLASSIFICATION OF BORROWINGS ACCORDING TO THE DEGREE OF ASSIMILATION

The grade of assimilation of adoptions depends on the undermentioned factors: a ) from what group of languages the word was borrowed, if the word belongs to the same group of linguistic communications to which the adoption linguistic communication belongs it is assimilated easier, B ) in what manner the word is borrowed: orally or in the written signifier, words borrowed orally are assimilated quicker, degree Celsius ) how frequently the adoption is used in the linguistic communication, the greater the frequence of its use, the quicker it is assimilated, vitamin D ) how long the word lives in the linguistic communication, the longer it lives, the more assimilated it is.

Consequently adoptions are subdivided into: wholly assimilated, partially assimilated and non-assimilated ( brutalities ) .

Wholly assimilated adoptions are non felt as foreign words in the linguistic communication, if the French word & # 171 ; athletics & # 187 ; and the native word & # 171 ; get down & # 187 ; . Wholly assimilated verbs belong to regular verbs, e.g. correct -corrected. Wholly assimilated nouns form their plural by agencies of s-inflexion, e.g. gate- Gatess. In wholly assimilated Gallic words the emphasis has been shifted from the last syllable to the last but one.

Semantic assimilation of borrowed words depends on the words bing in the adoption linguistic communication, as a regulation, a borrowed word does non convey all its significances into the adoption linguistic communication, if it is polysemous, e.g. the Russian adoption & # 171 ; sputnik & # 187 ; is used in English merely in one of its significances.

Partially assimilated adoptions are subdivided into the undermentioned groups: a ) adoptions non-assimilated semantically, because they denote objects and impressions peculiar to the state from the linguistic communication of which they were borrowed, e.g. saree, Sombrero, taiga, kvass etc.

B ) Borrowings non-assimilated grammatically, e.g. nouns borrowed from Latin and Greek retain their plural signifiers ( bacillus – B, phenomenon – phenomena, data point -data, and genius – mastermind etc.

degree Celsius ) Borrowings non-assimilated phonetically. Here belong words with the initial sounds /v/ and /z/ , e.g. voice, nothing. In native words these sonant consonants are used merely in the intervocal place as allophones of sounds /f/ and /s/ ( loss – lose, life – live ) . Some Norse adoptions have consonants and combinations of consonants which were non palatalized, e.g. /sk/ in the words: sky, skate, ski etc ( in native words we have the palatalised sounds denoted by the digram & # 171 ; sh & # 187 ; , e.g. shirt ) ; sounds /k/ and /g/ earlier front vowels are non palatalized e.g. miss, acquire, give, pull the leg of, kill, kettle. In native words we have palatalization, e.g. German, kid.

Some Gallic adoptions have retained their emphasis on the last syllable, e.g. constabulary, and sketch. Some Gallic adoptions retain particular combinations of sounds, e.g. /a:3/ in the words: disguise, businessperson, some of them retain the combination of sounds /wa: / in the words: memoir, avenue.

vitamin D ) adoptions can be partially assimilated diagrammatically, e.g. in Greak adoptions & # 171 ; y & # 187 ; can be spelled in the center of the word ( symbol, equivalent word ) , & # 171 ; pH & # 187 ; denotes the sound /f/ ( phoneme, morpheme ) , & # 171 ; ch & # 187 ; denotes the sound /k/ ( chemical science, pandemonium ) , & # 171 ; PS & # 187 ; denotes the sound /s/ ( psychological science ) .

Latin adoptions retain their polisyllabic construction, have dual consonants, as a regulation, the concluding consonant of the prefix is assimilated with the initial consonant of the root, ( accompany, affirmatory ) .

Gallic adoptions which came into English after 1650 retain their spelling, e.g. consonants & # 171 ; P & # 187 ; , & # 171 ; T & # 187 ; , & # 171 ; s & # 187 ; are non pronounced at the terminal of the word ( counter, putsch, dust ) , Specifically French combination of letters & # 171 ; eau & # 187 ; /ou/ can be found in the adoptions: boyfriend, chateau, troussaeu. Some of digrams retain their Gallic pronunciation: & # 8216 ; ch & # 8217 ; is pronounced as /sh/ , e.g. smart, parachute, & # 8216 ; qu & # 8217 ; is pronounced as /k/ e.g. corsage, & # 171 ; ou & # 187 ; is pronounc

ed as /u: / , e.g. paint ; some letters retain their Gallic pronunciation, e.g. «i» is pronounced as /i: / , vitamin E, g, smart, machine ; «g» is pronounced as /3/ , e.g. paint.

Modern German adoptions besides have some distinctive features in their spelling: common nouns are spelled with a capital missive e.g. Autobahn, Lebensraum ; some vowels and digram retain their German pronunciation, e.g. & # 171 ; a & # 187 ; is pronounced as /a: / ( Dictat ) , & # 171 ; u & # 187 ; is pronounced as /u: / ( Kuchen ) , & # 171 ; gold & # 187 ; is pronounced as /au/ ( Hausfrau ) , & # 171 ; ei & # 187 ; is pronounced as /ai/ ( Reich ) ; some consonants are besides pronounced in the German manner, e.g. & # 171 ; s & # 187 ; before a vowel is pronounced as /z/ ( Sitskrieg ) , & # 171 ; V & # 187 ; is pronounced as /f/ ( Volkswagen ) , & # 171 ; tungsten & # 187 ; is pronounced as /v/ , & # 171 ; ch & # 187 ; is pronounced as /h/ ( Kuchen ) .

Non-assimilated adoptions ( brutality ) are adoptions which are used by Englishmen instead rarely and are non-assimilated, e.g. addio ( Italian ) , head-to-head ( Gallic ) , dolce vita ( Italian ) , duende ( Spanish ) , an homme a femme ( Gallic ) , gonzo ( Italian ) etc.

Categorization OF BORROWINGS ACCORDING TO THE LANGUAGE FROM WHICH THEY WERE BORROWED ROMANIC BORROWINGS.

Latin adoptions.

Among words of Romanic beginning borrowed from Latin during the period when the British Isles were a portion of the Roman Empire, there are such words as: street, port, wall etc. Many Latin and Grecian words came into English during the Adoption of Christianity in the 6-th century. At this clip the Latin alphabet was borrowed which ousted the Runic alphabet. These adoptions are normally called classical adoptions. Here belong Latin words: alter, cross, dean, and Grecian words: church, angel, Satan, anthem.

Latin and Greek adoptions appeared in English during the Middle English period due to the Great Revival of Learning. These are largely scientific words because Latin was the linguistic communication of scientific discipline at the clip. These words were non used every bit often as the words of the Old English period, hence some of them were partially assimilated grammatically, e.g. formula – expression. Here besides belong such words as: memoranda, lower limit, upper limit, veto etc.

Classical adoptions continue to look in Modern English every bit good. Largely they are words formed with the aid of Latin and Greek morphemes. There are rather a batch of them in medical specialty ( appendicitis, acetylsalicylic acid ) , in chemical science ( acerb, valency, base ) , in technique ( engine, aerial, biplane, airport ) , in political relations ( socialism, militarism ) , names of scientific disciplines ( fauna, natural philosophies ) . In linguistics most of footings are of Greek beginning ( homonym, archaicism, lexicography ) .

Gallic borrowingsThe influence of French on the English spelling.

The largest group of adoptions are Gallic adoptions. Most of them came into English during the Norman Conquest. French influenced non merely the vocabulary of English but besides it & # 8217 ; s spelling, because Gallic Scribes wrote paperss as the local population was chiefly illiterate, and the opinion category was Gallic. Runic letters staying in English after the Latin alphabet was borrowed were substituted by Latin letters and combinations of letters, e.g. & # 171 ; V & # 187 ; was introduced for the sonant harmonic /v/ alternatively of & # 171 ; degree Fahrenheit & # 187 ; in the intervocal place /lufian – love/ , the digram & # 171 ; ch & # 187 ; was introduced to denote the sound /ch/ alternatively of the missive & # 171 ; degree Celsius & # 187 ; / chest/ before forepart vowels where it had been palatalized, the digram & # 171 ; sh & # 187 ; was introduced alternatively of the combination & # 171 ; Sc & # 187 ; to denote the sound /sh/ /ship/ , the digram & # 171 ; Thursday & # 187 ; was introduced alternatively of the Runic letters & # 171 ; 0 & # 187 ; and & # 171 ; & # 187 ; /this, thing/ , the missive & # 171 ; y & # 187 ; was introduced alternatively of the Runic missive & # 171 ; 3 & # 187 ; to denote the sound /j/ /yet/ , the digram & # 171 ; qu & # 187 ; substituted the combination & # 171 ; cw & # 187 ; to denote the combination of sounds /kw/ /queen/ , the digram & # 171 ; ou & # 187 ; was introduced to denote the sound /u: / /house/ ( The sound /u: / was subsequently on diphthongized and is pronounced /au/ in native words and to the full assimilated adoptions ) . As it was hard for Gallic Scribes to copy English texts they substituted the missive & # 171 ; u & # 187 ; before & # 171 ; V & # 187 ; , & # 171 ; m & # 187 ; , & # 171 ; n & # 187 ; and the digram & # 171 ; Thursday & # 187 ; by the missive & # 171 ; o & # 187 ; to get away the combination of many perpendicular lines / & # 171 ; sunu & # 187 ; – & # 171 ; boy & # 187 ; , luvu & # 187 ; – & # 171 ; love & # 187 ; / .

Borrowing of Gallic words.

There are the undermentioned semantic groups of Gallic adoptions:

& # 183 ; a ) words associating to authorities: administer, imperium, province, authorities ;

& # 183 ; B ) words associating to military personal businesss: ground forces, war, streamer, soldier, conflict ;

& # 183 ; degree Celsius ) words associating to jury: advocator, request, inquest, sentence, barrister ;

& # 183 ; vitamin D ) words associating to manner: luxury, coat, neckband, lacing, plait, embellishment ;

& # 183 ; vitamin E ) words associating to jewellery: topaz, emerald, ruby, pearl ;

& # 183 ; degree Fahrenheit ) words associating to nutrient and cookery: tiffin, dinner, appetite, to roast, to grizzle.

Wordss were borrowed from French into English after 1650, chiefly through Gallic literature, but they were non as legion and many of them are non wholly assimilated. There are the undermentioned semantic groups of these adoptions:

& # 183 ; a ) words associating to literature and music: belle-lettres, conservatorie, booklet, nicety, piruette, music hall ;

& # 183 ; B ) words associating to military personal businesss: corps, echelon, fuselage, manouvre ;

& # 183 ; degree Celsius ) words associating to edifices and furniture: mezzanine, chateau, agency ;

& # 183 ; vitamin D ) words associating to nutrient and cookery: ragout, culinary art.

Italian adoptions.

Cultural and trade dealingss between Italy and England brought many Italian words into English. The earliest Italian adoption came into English in the 14-th century, it was the word & # 171 ; bank & # 187 ; /from the Italian & # 171 ; banko & # 187 ; – & # 171 ; bench & # 187 ; / . Italian usurers and moneychangers sat in the streets on benches. When they suffered losingss they turned over their benches, it was called & # 171 ; banco rotta & # 187 ; from which the English word & # 171 ; bankrupt & # 187 ; originated. In the 17-th century some geological footings were borrowed: vent, granite, bronze, lava. At the same clip some political footings were borrowed: pronunciamento, bulletin.

But largely Italian is celebrated by its influence in music and in all Indo-germanic linguistic communications musical footings were borrowed from Italian: alto, barytone, basso, tenor, falsetto, solo, couple, three, four, quintet, opera, light opera, libretto, piano, fiddle.

Among the 20-th century Italian borrowings we can advert: gazette, incognito, altostrati, debacle, fascist, dabbler, grotesque, graffitto etc.

Spanish adoptions.

Spanish adoptions came into English chiefly through its American discrepancy. There are the undermentioned semantic groups of them:

& # 183 ; a ) trade footings: lading, trade stoppage ;

& # 183 ; B ) names of dances and musical instruments: tango, rhumba, habanera, guitar ;

& # 183 ; degree Celsius ) names of veggies and fruit: tomato, murphy, baccy, chocolate, banana, Ananas, apricot etc.

GERMANIC BORROWINGS

English belongs to the Germanic group of linguistic communications and there are adoptions from Norse, German and Holland linguistic communications, though their figure is much less than adoptions from Romanic linguistic communications.

Norse adoptions.

By the terminal of the Old English period English underwent a strong influence of Norse due to the Norse conquering of the British Isles. Norses belonged to the same group of peoples as Englishmans and their linguistic communications had much in common. As the consequence of this conquest there are about 700 adoptions from Scandinavian into English.

Norses and Englishmen had the same manner of life, their cultural degree was the same, they had much in common in their literature therefore there were many words in these linguistic communications which were about indistinguishable, e.g.

However there were besides many words in the two linguistic communications which were different, and some of them were borrowed into English, such nouns as: bull, bar, egg, child, knife, skirt, window etc, such adjectives as: level, sick, happy, low, uneven, ugly, incorrect, such verbs as: call, dice, conjecture, acquire, give, shriek and many others.

Even some pronouns and connective words were borrowed which happens really rarely, such as: same, both, boulder clay, fro, though, and pronominal signifiers with & # 171 ; Thursday & # 187 ; : they, them, their. Norse influenced the development of phrasal verbs, which did non be in Old English, at the same clip some prefixed verbs came out of use, e.g. ofniman, beniman. Phrasal verbs are now extremely productive in English /take off, give in etc/ .

German adoptions.

There are some 800 words borrowed from German into English. Some of them have classical roots, e.g. in some geological footings, such as: Co, Bi, zink, quarts, gneiss, tungsten. There were besides words denoting objects used in mundane life which were borrowed from German: iceberg, anteroom, and backpack, Kindergarten etc.

In the period of the Second World War the undermentioned words were borrowed: Volkssturm, Luftwaffe, SS-man, Bundeswehr, Gestapo, gas chamber and many others. After the Second World War the undermentioned words were borrowed: Berufsverbot, Volkswagen etc.

Holland adoptions.

Holland and England have changeless interrelatednesss for many centuries and more than 2000 Holland adoptions were borrowed into English. Most of them are maritime footings and were chiefly borrowed in the 14-th century, such as: cargo, skipper, pump, keel, dock, reef, deck, leak and many others.

Besides two chief groups of adoptions ( Romanic and Germanic ) there are besides adoptions from a batch of other linguistic communications. We shall talk about Russian adoptions, adoptions from the linguistic communication, which belongs to Slavoninc linguistic communications.

Russian adoptions.

There were changeless contacts between England and Russia and they borrowed words from one linguistic communication into the other. Among early Russian adoptions there are chiefly words connected with trade dealingss, such as: rouble, kopek, pood, sterlet, vodka, sable, and besides words associating to nature, such as: taiga, tundra, steppe etc.

There is besides a big group of Russian adoptions which came into English through Rushian literature of the 19-th century, such as: Narodnik, muzhik, Duma, zemstvo. volost, ukase etc, and besides words which were formed in Russian with Latin roots, such as: nihilist, intelligenzia, Decembrist etc.

After the Great October Revolution many new words appeared in Russian connected with the new political system, new civilization, and many of them were borrowed into English, such as: collectivisation. udarnik, Komsomol etc and besides interlingual rendition loans, such as: daze worker, corporate farm, five-year program etc.

One more group of Russian adoptions is connected with perestroika, such as: glasnost, nomenklatura, apparatchik etc.